rr I, 



% 



\ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS,'! 
Chap. J&LELUdU, 

Shelf jJi^SHt— 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



\ 



- r 



Lessons in English, 



ADAPTED TO THE STUDY OF 



AMERICAN CLASSICS. 



E QLtxtMook for ^ijjf} Spools ano &caoemtes< 



BY 

SAKA EVHUSTED LOCKWOOD, 

Teacher of English in the Hillhouse High School, 
New Haven, Conn. 



o^^o 




BOSTON, U.S.A. : 

PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY. 

1890. 

L 



T£" u „ 
.1-51 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by 

GINN & COMPANY, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



All Rights Reserved. 



Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 
Presswork by Ginn & Co., Boston, U.S,A, 



TO 



My faithful teachers, my kind co-workers, 
my dear and steadfast friends, 

Mx. wcib JUrs. E. 8H. ^.Curtis, 

with grateful appreciation of their unfailing kindness s 
helpfulness, and sympathy. 



Think for a moment of that great, silent, resistless power for 
good which might at this moment be lifting the youth of the country, 
were the hours for reading in school expended upon the undying, 
life-giving books ! Think of the substantial growth of a generous 
Americanism, were the boys and girls to be fed from the fresh springs 
of American literature! It would be no narrow provincialism into 
which they would emerge. The windows in Longfellow f s mind look 
to the east, and the children who have entered into possession of his 
wealth travel far. Bryant's flight carries one through upper air, 
over broad champaigns. The lover of Emerson has learned to get 
a far vision. The companion of Thoreau finds Concord suddenly 
become the centre of a very wide horizon. Irving has annexed Spain 
to America. Hawthorne has nationalized the gods of Greece and given 
an atmosphere to New England. Whittier has translated the Hebrew 
Scriptures into the American dialect. Lowell gives the American boy 
an academy without cutting down a stick of timber in the grove, or 
disturbing the birds. Holmes supplies that hickory which makes one 
careless of the crackling of thorns. . . . . 

What is all this but saying that the rich inheritance which we 
have is no local ten-acre lot, but a part of the undivided estate of 
humanity f 

Horace E. Scudder, American Classics in School. 



PREFACE. 



The interest recently awakened in the study of English 
is, doubtless, due, in a great measure, to the fact that the 
works of the best English and American authors are now 
published in convenient and attractive form, and at prices 
which bring them within the reach of all. 

It is almost universally conceded that the best teaching 
of English is that in which precept and example are most 
happily combined. The testimony of teachers who have 
long been striving to attain this end is that far better 
results are reached by the use of supplementary reading 
than were possible before the days of cheap editions. 
The pupil has constantly before him specimens of classic 
English, and is trained to test their excellence by apply- 
ing the principles which he has learned. This method not 
only strengthens his mental grasp upon the abstract princi- 
ples, but unconsciously develops a critical literary taste. 
Power of thought and facility of expression are acquired 
with comparative^ little effort. More than this, the open- 
ing of so many lines of thought and investigation does 
much towards forming the basis of a broad, general culture. 

These are not simply theories. The} 7 have been tested 
by actual experience. The question is not, therefore, Shall 
we use these books in our high-school classes? but rather, 
How shall we use them to the best advantage? 

In attempting to solve this problem, the necessity for a 
simple but comprehensive text-book has become apparent 
to many teachers. There are good text-books on Rhetoric 
and excellent w r orks on Composition ; but most of them 
contain more than is needed for the lower classes in our 



VI PREFACE. 

high schools, and much of the matter is too philosophical 
for immature minds. So, too, there are voluminous biog- 
raphies of our noted writers, but no one book that brings 
within the reach of every pupil the main facts in regard 
to the lives and works of several authors. As a matter 
of school economy, therefore, a new book on the study of 
English seems desirable. 

The author's apology for presuming to meet the necessi- 
ties of the case is that, for several years, she has been try- 
ing to teach English without a text-book, doing a laborious 
amount of dictation work and copying with the hektograph. 
Eealizing that a simple and practical hand-book of the 
essentials of English would be a help to many teachers, 
she has been induced to publish the details of her method. 

Many books have been consulted during the preparation 
of this volume, but special mention should be made of the 
help afforded by Guest's " Lectures on the History of Eng- 
land" ; u The Handbook of the English Tongue," by Angus ; 
Swinton's " New Word-Analysis"; the Rhetorics of D. J. 
Hill, A. S. Hill, Hart, and De Mille ; " Errors in the Use of 
English," by Hodgson; "Mistakes in Writing English," 
by Bigelow ; Wilson's " Treatise on Punctuation"; and 
Whitney's "Language and the Study of Language." 

The author extends her thanks to the teachers associated 
with her in the English department of the Hillhouse Higli 
School, for their cordial co-operation; and to her friend, 
Miss S. S. Sheridan, for many helpful suggestions. 

She also gratefully acknowledges her obligations to Mr. 
S. T. Button, Superintendent of the Public Schools of 
New Haven, for kind encouragement during the progress 
of the work ; and to Prof. T. R. Lonnsbury of Yale Uni- 
versity, for invaluable assistance in the critical revision of 
the manuscript. g # j£ jj l 

New Haven, Conn., November, 1887. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Course of Study as pursued in the New Haven High School. 
List of American Classics for the Study of Literature. 
Details of the Method. Practical Suggestions to Teach- 
ers xi 



CHAPTER I. 
History of the English Language. 

The Study of Language. Classification of Languages. The 
Britons. The Roman Invasion. The Saxons. The 
Norman Conquest. Growth of the English Language. 
Summary of the Elements of the Language 1 

Questions for Review 34 



CHAPTER II. 
The Anglo-Saxon Element. 

The Study of Etymology. Importance of the Anglo-Saxon 
Element. Words Distinguished as Saxon by their Form. 
Words Distinguished as Saxon by their Use and Mean- 
ing. Saxon Prefixes and Suffixes 40 

Miscellaneous Exercises 48 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XL 
Biographical Sketches. 

PAGE 

Topical Biographies of Seven American Authors: Irving, 
Longfellow, Whittier, Hawthorne, Holmes, Lowell, and 
Bryant. Works of Each Author. References for Home 
Reading. Review Questions on the Life and Works of 

Each 335 

Miscellaneous Questions 389 

Programme for Celebration of Longfellow's Birthday . . . 392 



INTRODUCTION. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

To the many teachers who have, by years of patient 
toil and experiment, achieved success in this depart- 
ment of school work, it may seem presumptuous to 
suggest methods of teaching English. It is certaiu, 
however, that there are not a few, of less experience 
but of equal enthusiasm, who will welcome a definite 
plan of work and a few practical hints. To such this 
chapter is addressed. 

As will be seen from the following plan, this text- 
book is intended to be used in connection with a crit- 
ical study of some of the best American authors. The 
choice of books for reading must, of course, depend 
largely upon circumstances, upon the taste of the 
teacher, and the capacity of the class. 1 The plan pro- 
vides for instruction extending through the pupil's first 
year in the high school and half of the second, although 
a full two years' course is strongly recommended. Even 
without a text-book, all the proposed work except the 
study of Bryant has been completed in a year and a 
half, and with very gratifying results. It is believed 
that by the aid of this hand-book, still more may safely 
be attempted. 

1 If preferred, any other authors may be substituted for those named in 
the plan. 



Xll 



INTRODUCTION. 



PLAN FOR LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

First Year. (40 Weeks.) 

History of the English Language. 
Saxon and Classical Elements. 
Figures of Speech. 

Common Errors in the Use of English. 
Punctuation and Capitals. 
Letter-Writing and Composition. 



Irving . 



Literature. 

' Life. 

The Voyage. 
. < Rip Van Winkle. 

Legend of Sleepy Hollow. 
^ Westminster Abbey. 



] From "Six Selec- 
tions fromlrving's 
Sketch-Book, " ed- 
ited by Homer B. 
Sprague. 



Riverside Litera- 



f Life. 

I Courtshipof Miles Standish. 
Longfellow < ( ture Series, No. 2. 

( Riverside Litera- 
Twenty Shorter Poems. | ^ ^^ Nq n 

r Life. 
Whittier . . <j Snow-Bound and Among ^ Riverside Litera- 
l the Hills. ( ture Series, No. 4. 



Second Year, First Term. (20 Weeks.) 

Diction : Purity, Propriety, Precision. 

With critical study of words from the dictionary and other books 

of reference. 
Sentences : Rules for Construction. 
Letter-Writing and Composition. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Xlll 



Literature. 

r Life. 
Essay on Hawthorne by J 
T. Fields. 
Hawthorne . <; Tales of the White Hills. 
Legends of New England. 
Introduction to Mosses from an Old Manse, 
lections.) 



Modern Classics, 1 
No. 28. 



(Se- 



HOLMES 



Lowell 



Bryant 



Life. 

Favorite Poems and 
My Hunt after the Captain. 
(Selections.) J 

f Life. 

] The Vision of Sir Launfal. 
Favorite Poems. (Selec- 
tions.) 



j 



Modern Classics, 
No. 30. 



Modern Classics, 
No. 5. 



r Life. 

<{ Thanatopsis and Other Favorite Poems. 
I lished by Ginn & Co.) 



(Pub- 



At first sight, the arrangement of subjects may seem 
illogical. It should be understood, however, that it 
is not the intention to have the class " go through " the 
chapters of the book consecutively, but to fit all the 
parts of the work into one harmonious whole. The 
plan presupposes that, before entering the high school, 
the pupil has learned the essential facts concerning the 
structure of the English language. Some of the chap- 
ters — for example, " Punctuation and Capitals" and 
" Common Errors in the Use of English" — will, there- 
fore, not be new to him ; but every teacher appreciates 



1 Hawthorne's Biographical Stories, Grandfather's Chair, The Wonder 
Book, and Tanglewood Tales are now published in the Riverside Literature 
Series, and may be substituted, if preferred, 



Xiv INTRODUCTION. 

the fact that instruction in these particulars must needs 
be "line upon line, and precept upon precept." In 
the second year of the course and even later, they may 
very profitably receive attention. It is recommended 
that drill in these essential elements of good writing 
and speaking be given, a little at a time, in connection 
with other and more entertaining features of the work. 
Let each principle be enforced by illustrations and 
practical applications. Teach pupils to punctuate as 
they write, not after they have written. In this way, 
the correct use of capitals and marks of punctuation 
becomes a matter of habit rather than of obedience to 
certain arbitrary rules. The necessity for persistent 
attempts to correct prevailing errors of speech is too 
well understood by teachers to need any comment here. 
Practice in writing should be constant. If possible, 
let the pupil do some written work in class each day. 
Where there is a large number of pupils under the care 
of one teacher, daily practice in writing may not be feas- 
ible ; but it is urged that every teacher make the most 
of her opportunities in this direction. The chapters 
on Letter-Writing and Composition contain suggestions 
for five-minute exercises, to be introduced at the begin- 
ning of the recitation. Vary these exercises, so as to 
have something fresh and interesting every day. The 
careful teacher will plan her work for at least several 
days in advance, so as never to be at a loss for expe- 
dients to occupy the time to the best advantage. Much 
is gained by occasionally allowing the pupils to correct 
each other's written work ; but, as a rule, the correc- 
tions should be made by the teacher. When the 
thought, rather than the arrangement, is to be consid- 



INTRODUCTION. XV 

ered, it is well to have some of the exercises read aloud 
and criticised by the class. Pupils should be encour- 
aged to copy their corrected compositions into a note- 
book, for future reference. Insist upon neat and care- 
ful writing, even in these brief exercises. 

It is intended that the study of literature be taken 
up as early in the course as is practicable and continued 
in such a way as to supplement the technical part of 
the instruction. To illustrate : the life of Irving may 
be studied immediately after the pupil has learned the 
history of the language. Then, while he is learning to 
distinguish Saxon words, he should read at home or at 
school as much as he can about Irving's life and works. 
The references given at the close of each biographical 
sketch are intended to aid in directing home reading. 
The sketches are purposely meager in details, contain- 
ing little of anecdote and nothing regarding the char- 
acteristics of the authors, the intention being to have 
the outline filled out from the pupils' own researches, 
under the guidance of the teacher. The dates are given 
mainly for reference. Teachers will use their own dis- 
cretion in determining how many of these it is worth 
while for the scholar to commit to memory. 

After allowing a reasonable time for home reading, 
let the pupils tell in class what they have learned in 
this way. If access to these references be impossible 
for the scholars, as will be the case in many schools, 
the teacher must try to suppty the want of a circulat- 
ing library. An interesting incident in the life of the 
author may be related by the teacher or written for the 
class, they being required to reproduce it as their com- 
position work for the day. 



Xvi INTRODUCTION. 

Finally, the pupil should write for himself a biog- 
raphy of the author. It is excellent practice to change 
the sketch from the topical form, as here given, to the 
chronological order of events. Good results are ob- 
tained by having parts of this work done by the class 
as a whole, the teacher writing upon the blackboard at 
the dictation of various pupils. For example, let them 
all think of an introduction which shall not begin with, 
" Washington Irving was born in New York, April 3, 
1783." The class decides which is the best of several 
forms proposed, and the teacher then writes it, the class 
dictating the details of arrangement and punctuation. 
By thus doing the work for them, while apparently 
leaving it in their own hands, the teacher may empha- 
size directions previously given as to margins, para- 
graphing, etc. 

One of the simpler sketches, perhaps " The Voyage," 
may now be read with special reference to the principles 
already learned. At the outset, teachers should seek 
to remedy defects in the mechanical part of the read- 
ing. Doubtless it ought not to be necessary to spend 
time in the high school upon drill in the elements of 
good reading; but doubtless, also, the necessity for 
such drill is recognized in most high schools. The 
teacher ought to insist upon such a style of reading as 
will show appreciation of the thought. The mind must 
be trained to look ahead and catch the sense before 
the sound is uttered. Cultivate natural, conversational 
tones and inflections. The entire sketch should be read 
by the pupil at home, so that he may be familiar with 
it in its unity and be able to reproduce it either orally 
or in writing, before beginning to study it in detail. 



INTRODUCTION. XV11 

Some of the points which should be considered in the 
critical study of the sketch are the following : — 

First. Construction. Misunderstanding as to the rela- 
tions of words in a sentence may make the meaning 
so obscure that a proper reading will be impossible. 
The teacher should be sure that such misunderstand- 
ings are corrected. Occasionally have a sentence ana- 
lyzed or ask for the syntax of words in peculiar con- 
structions. 

Second. Derivation and Definition. Apply the rules 
for distinguishing Saxon words. Substitute occa- 
sionally Saxon words or phrases for synonymous 
terms of foreign origin. Show the class how to use 
the dictionary, and see that they form the habit of 
consulting authorities whenever, in any of their 
studies, they come upon a word whose pronuncia- 
tion, use, and meaning they do not know. Never 
accept from pupils a definition which does not accord 
with the office of the word defined. Require them 
to define verbs as verbs, adjectives as adjectives, etc. 

Third. Allusions, personal, local, historical, literary, 
etc. Direct pupils in their search for information. 
Show them the use and value of the gazetteer, the 
encyclopaedia, the dictionaries of mythology, biog- 
raphy, and etymology, the hand-book of quotations, 
the dictionary of phrase and fable. See that they 
learn to consult a book by the help of its index. 

As the work progresses, each new principle learned 
should be applied to the work in literature. A knowl- 
edge of the common rhetorical figures is indispensable 
to an intelligent appreciation of what is read, and ac- 



XV111 INTRODUCTION. 

cordingly the subject is introduced into the first year's 
work, in simplified form and with copious illustrations. 
It is recommended that Simile and Metaphor be thor- 
oughly understood before a second sketch is read, and 
that the entire chapter on Figures be taken up before 
any poetry is studied in class. 

Before attempting to study any sketch or poem, the 
class should acquire a good general knowledge of the 
subject of the piece. For example, before reading 
" Westminster Abbey," they should learn the history 
and associations of the building, and be able to draw a 
plan of it and to describe its most interesting features. 
They should have access to a guide-book of London, 
with a map showing the location of the Abbey. If 
possible, bring within their reach such books as " Old 
and New London," Dean Stanley's history of the 
Abbey, and Hare's " Walks in London." Show them 
the illustrations in Knight's " Old England," or, better 
still, photographs of all the places of interest referred 
to in the sketch. They will then be prepared to walk 
with Irving through the shadowy cloisters and among 
the graves of the mighty dead and to appreciate in 
greater measure his reflections upon the vanity of human 
greatness. 

The teacher should be careful not to tell the pupils too 
much. This line of work offers peculiar temptations to 
the enthusiastic teacher, who is likely to forget that the 
main object is not to make the recitation a brilliant 
one. Let each pupil feel that he must contribute his 
share towards the general interest. 

Require pupils to commit to memory and recite in 
class choice extracts from the various authors whose 



INTRODUCTION. XIX 

works are studied. Encourage them to do even more 
of this memorizing than is required. The habit of 
storing the mind with beautiful and noble thoughts, 
expressed in fitting words, cannot be too highly com- 
mended. 

For the second year's work, it is expected that teach- 
ers will use substantially the same methods as those 
suggested for the beginning of the course. In schools 
where there are several classes in the same grade and 
but meager facilities for reference, the work may be so 
planned as to secure rotation of subjects. One class 
may begin Diction and enjoy a monopoly of the refer- 
ence books required, while a second takes up the chap- 
ter on Sentences, and a third studies the life and works 
of Hawthorne. 

These suggestions answer, at least in part, the in- 
quiries which have, from time to time, been made as to 
the details of this method of studying English. It is 
hoped that they will prove of assistance in the use of 
these Lessons. 



LESSONS m ENGLISH. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Definition and Derivation of the Word "Lan- 
guage." — The word "language" is derived from the 
Latin lingua, meaning tongue. Its primary meaning is, 
therefore, the expression of thought by the use of the 
tongue. But there are other ways in which thought 
may be communicated; for example, by gestures and 
signals, by pictorial and written signs. In the widest 
sense, therefore, language signifies not only utterance, 
but all the ways in which men make known their 
thoughts. In the scientific sense, language means the 
expression of thought by articulate speech or by written 
characters. 

The Study of Language. — Although scholarly men 
of all times have learned to use other languages than 
their own, the science of Linguistics — that is, the study 
of language as a ivhole — is of comparatively recent 
growth. During the last quarter of a century much 
attention has been paid by scientific men to questions 
concerning the origin and history of language and the 
relations existing between different languages, living 



2 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

and dead. It is well for us to know what are some of 
their discoveries, and what theories they have about 
things which cannot be certainly known. 

Theories concerning' the Origin of Language. — 

When we think of speech as characteristic of all men, 
from the lowest to the highest, we naturally inquire, 
Why do all men speak ? How did the first races who 
lived on the earth learn to talk with one another ? No 
one is wise enough to answer these questions positively ; 
but there are three principal theories as to the origin of 
language. They are, briefly, as follows : — 

First. That language is of divine origin ; a direct reve- 
lation from God to man. 

Second. That it is of human origin; the consequence 
of man's social instincts and of his ingenuity. 

Third. That it is both human and divine ; that God 
created man endowed with the power of making 
speech for himself, and possessed of the ability to 
provide himself with food, clothing, and shelter. It 
assumes that man has gradually formed a language 
corresponding in completeness to his own progress 
in civilization, as he has gradually improved upon 
his styles of clothing and shelter, and become more 
fastidious about his food. The last theory seems 
the most reasonable and is the one most generally 
received. 

Theories concerning the Beginnings of Speech.— 

We can trace back many forms of speech now in use 
to ruder forms which existed in early times, and so 
study the life and growth of a language, as we learn 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 3 

the history of a man who has long been dead, from the 
letters which he wrote when living, and from the tradi- 
tions which have come down to us from people who 
knew him. We cannot, however, determine positively 
what were the earliest forms of speech. Among the 
theories which scientific men have advanced are three, 
which have been nicknamed "the bow-wow theory," 
"the pooh-pooh theory," and "the ding-dong theory." 
The first conjectures that man's first attempts at speech 
would naturally be in the way of imitation of the sounds 
which he heard, as a child often calls a dog a "bow- 
wow," and a watch a "tick-tick." The second sup- 
poses that he would first use the interjections, oh ! ah ! 
pooh! etc., as involuntary expressions of pain or pleas- 
ure, surprise, fear, or disgust. The third theory is 
based upon the idea that everything in nature rings 
when it is struck, and each substance has a different 
ring. So, according to this theory, man was a kind of 
bell, and when a thought struck him, he rang in response. 
Of course, these are only guesses. Professor Whitney, 
of Yale University, inclines to accept the first of these 
theories, which is properly called "the Onomatopoetic 
theory," from two Greek words, meaning a name and 
to make. The word signifies, therefore, the formation 
of names which resemble in sound the things signified. 

The Original Language. — In the eleventh chapter 
of Genesis we read, " And the whole earth was of one 
language and of one speech." It used to be taken for 
granted that this original language was the Hebrew, 
in which the Old Testament was written; but when 
scholars attempted to classify the languages of the 



4 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

world, they found many things to puzzle them. As- 
suming that Hebrew was the mother of all other lan- 
guages, they expected to be able to trace any common 
word in the different languages back to its Hebrew 
root ; but in this they were disappointed. After years 
of study and labor, it was discovered that they had been 
all the time working upon an incorrect supposition. 
Their experience was much like that of the early astron- 
omers, who thought that the earth was the centre around 
which the sun, the moon, and the planets revolved ; and 
who tried in vain to reconcile their observations with 
their calculations concerning the movements of the 
heavenly bodies. When it was demonstrated that the 
sun was the centre, the whole science of astronomy was 
changed. So, when the students of Linguistics learned 
that the Hebrew was not the original language, they 
had to do their work of classification all over again. 

The Study of Sanskrit. — The discovery of their 
mistake was made in a singular w r ay. About one hun- 
dred years ago, the English, who governed India, found 
that, in order to understand the old laws by which the 
people had been ruled, it was necessary to study the 
language in which these laws were written. This was 
the Sanskrit, the ancient sacred dialect of India. It 
ceased to be spoken more than three centuries before 
Christ, but specimens had been preserved in the sacred 
books of the Hindus. The English missionaries, too, 
found that they must study the Sanskrit, in order to 
understand the religious traditions of the people and 
convince them of their errors. As the work progressed, 
it was noticed how similar this ancient dialect was, in 
many important particulars, to the Latin and Greek, 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5 

and to the modern languages of Europe, and how un- 
like it was to the Hebrew. Many of the problems 
which had long been puzzling learned men were easily 
solved by the help of students of the Sanskrit, and 
many obscure points of relationship became clear in 
the light of the discoveries which were made. A new 
classification of languages was the result. By this classi- 
fication the Sanskrit is not made the original language, 
but is regarded as the oldest member of one family of 
languages, while the Hebrew holds an important place 
in another family. 

Families of Languages. — In studying the relations 
existing between languages, scholars have been guided 
by resemblances in roots and words and forms of inflec- 
tion and construction, just as we recognize children 
as belonging to the same family, because of similarity 
in form, features, and expression, or in traits of charac- 
ter. The science of Linguistics is still so young that 
only a beginning has been made in the work of deter- 
mining the relations between the languages of the 
world; but thus far the existence of two distinct fami- 
lies has been established. The first is known by three 
different names : — 

1. The Indo-European, because it includes the languages 

of India and of Europe. 

2. The Japhetic, because the races represented are sup- 

posed to be descended from this son of Noah. 

3. The Aryan, because the original home of this family 

is supposed to have been the plateau of Iran or 
Ariana, called Arya in the Sanskrit. 



6 LESSOHS IK ENGLISH. 

The second is known by two names: — 

1. The Semitic or Shemitic, because the races repre- 

sented are supposed to be descended from She in. 

2. The Syro- Arabian, from the Syriac and Arabic, two 

of its languages. 

These families by no means include all of the three 
or four thousand dialects spoken in the world, but 
there is so much uncertainty about the relationships of 
the others that we will not attempt to combine them 
into families. The Indo-European, being the family of 
most importance, deserves careful study ; and its classi- 
fication is especially interesting to us, since it shows 
us the place which our mother-tongue holds among the 
languages of Europe and Asia. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. 

Showing the Relations of the Most Important Languages. 
I. The Indian Branch. II. The Persian Branch. 



Sanskrit. 



Earliest form found in the Zend. Old Persian. 

Vedas, the most ancient of Earliest form found Found in the 

the sacred books of the in the Zend-Avesta, cuneiform 

Hindus. tne oldest sacred (arrow-headed) 

I . book of the Persians. inscriptions of 

Prakrit. Darius and Xerxes 
One of the Prakrit dialects 

is the Pali, the sacred Ian- Modern Persian, 
guage of tl\e Buddhists in 
Ceylon and Farther India. 

Modern Dialects of India. 

i i 1 i 

Hindi. Bengali. Mahratti. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



III. The Greek Branch. 

I 
Ancient Greek. 

Modern Greek, or Romaic. 



IV. The Italic Branch. 

I 
Latin. 

The language of the ancient Romans. 

i 

Principal Romance Languages. 



i 1 — ^ 1 

French. Italian. Spanish. Portuguese. 



V. The Celtic Branch. 

Dialects of early inhabitants of Spain, Gaul (France), 
Britain (England and Scotland), and Ireland. 



i 

Cymric. 



Gaelic. 

I 



Welsh. Cornish. Armorican. 
Spoken in 
Brittany, 
France. 



Irish. Manx. Highland 
Spoken Scotch, 
in the Isle 
Man. 



VI. The Sclavonic Branch. 



Old Sclavonic. Old Prussian. Russian. Bulgarian. Polish. Bohemian 
Found in a trans- 



lation of the Bible, 

one thousand 

years old. 



VII. The Teutonic Branch. 



Gothic. 
Found in a 
translation of 
the Bible, fif- 
teen hundred 
years old. 



High 
Germanic. 

I 
Old High 
German. 

I 

Middle High 

German. 



Scandinavian. Low Germanic. 



Ice- Dan- Swed- Nor- 
landic. ish, ish. wegian. 



Dutch. Low German Anglo-Saxon, 
(Plattdeutsch). or English. 



New High German. 



8 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. . 

I ' 

The Semitic Family includes the Phoenician, Chal- 
dean, Assyrian, Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew. This 
family is of interest to us because the nations which it 
represents once played an important part in the world's 
history. In ancient times Assyria and Chaldea, with 
their great cities of Babylon and Nineveh, were the 
richest and most powerful kingdoms in Asia. Phoeni- 
cia, though a mere strip of sea-coast at the eastern end 
of the Mediterranean, carried on an extensive commerce 
from its ports, Tyre and Sidon, and from the numerous 
colonies which it planted along the shore of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. The most important of these colonies was 
Carthage, the rival of Rome. The Phoenicians did 
much to extend the limits of geographical knowledge ; 
and most of the alphabets now in use were derived from 
theirs. Syria was prominent mainly because of the 
extensive trade which Damascus and Palmyra carried 
on with the East, by means of caravans across the 
desert. In the Middle Ages the Arabs under Moham- 
med overcame the neighboring nations and gradually 
brought under their dominion a large part of Asia, the 
explored regions of Africa, and the countries of South- 
ern Europe, forming the most powerful Semitic king- 
dom that has ever existed. The Hebrew is the most 
important representative of this family, because of its 
association with the Holy Land, with the Old Testa- 
ment Scriptures, and with the Christian religion, " the 
mightiest element in human history." 

Peculiarities of Semitic Inflection. — Both the Indo- 
European and the Semitic languages are " inflectional "; 
that is, the variations of an idea are expressed by certain 
changes in the form of the root, the simplest element 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 9 

which expresses that idea. To inflect means to bend ; 
so when we inflect a verb, we really bend the form of 
expression to make it fit the various circumstances of 
time, person, and number, etc. For example, see is the 
root, the simplest form of the verb; seeing, saw, and 
seen, are inflected forms of the same verb. We are all 
familiar with the forms of inflection peculiar to the 
English language, and perhaps, to some extent, with the 
inflections of the Latin, the German, and the French. 
In the languages of the Semitic family the mode of 
inflection is altogether different. In most of the verbs 
the root is made up of three consonants, and the inflec- 
tion consists in combining with them different vowels. 
Professor Whitney gives a very good illustration, which, 
although we need not try to learn it, will help us to 
understand the peculiarities of the Semitic languages. 
He selects the Arabic root q-t-l, which has the idea of 
killing. The following are some of the variations of this 
elementary idea : — 



qatala = he killed. 


qatil = killing. 


qattala — he massacred. 


iqtal = causing to kill. 


qatalat — she killed. 


aqtala = he caused to kill 


qutila — he was killed. 


qutl = murderous. 


qutilu = they were killed. 


qatl = murder. 


uqtul = kill. 


qitl = enemy. 



Origin of the Indo-European Family. — In order to 
understand more clearly the resemblance between the 
languages of Europe and those of India and Persia, let 
us notice a single illustration. The word father has 
these forms in the different languages : — 



10 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Sanskrit, pitri. 


Latin, 


pater. 


Zend, paitar. 


Greek, 


(pronounced pa-tair') 


Persian, pader. 


Gothic, 


vatar. 


Erse, athair. 


German , 


vater. 


Italian, padre. 


Dutch, 


fader. 


Spanish, padre. 


Danish, 


fader. 


French, pere. 


Swedish, 


fader. 



Saxon, feeder. English, father. 

This is but one example of many. The pronouns 
and the numerals show the same striking similarity. 
One writer says, "The terms for God, house, father 
and mother, son and daughter, heart and tears, axe and 
tree, dog and cow, identical in all Indo-European lan- 
guages, may be compared to watchwords of a great 
army on its solemn march around the globe." The only 
way of accounting for such resemblances as these, is by 
supposing that all the members of this family had a 
common ancestor in some forgotten tongue, which 
ceased to be spoken long before history began to be 
written. It is supposed, too, that these races speaking 
the same tongue must once have lived together. Accord- 
ing to tradition, the home of Japhet was in the central 
part of Asia, in the Plateau of Iran or Persia, called 
Arya in the Sanskrit. We must remember that this 
is only tradition. We have no evidence that Arya was 
really the home of Japhet ; but, according to the theory, 
here his descendants lived until they became so numer- 
ous that they were obliged to seek new homes for them- 
selves. Possibly the first ones who started out went to 
the eastward until they were stopped by the Himalaya 
Mountains. It is the westward-bound pioneers, how- 
ever, with whom we have to do. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11 

The Celts. — It has been conjectured that the first 
band of people who travelled westward were the Celts 
or Kelts, since in early times they occupied the countries 
along the sea-coast — Spain, Gaul (France), and part of 
Italy — and the adjacent islands of Britain and Ireland. 
Their position here would seem to indicate that they 
had been pushed on by other bands until they could go 
no farther. But this, too, is only a theory. With the 
story of these early inhabitants properly begins the his- 
tory of England, though, as we shall see, the Qelts were 
not the ancestors of the English people. -<^ J>-±r> 

Qj The Britons. — About fifty-five years before Christ, 
when Julius Caesar was conquering the Celtic tribes in 
Spain and Gaul, the attention of the Romans was 
attracted to an unknown land whose shores were 
dimly seen from the northern coast of Gaul. The 
Romans were fond of geography and of exploring un- 
known regions, and their generals had a passion for 
extending the Roman dominions. Caesar determined 
to explore the country on the other side of the Chan- 
nel ; and it is to the records of these explorations by 
the Romans that we owe our knowledge of the early 
inhabitants of England. It was not then known as 
England. The Romans named it Britannia, and its 
inhabitants were called Britons. We must remember 
that they were Celtic people, like the inhabitants of 
Gaul. Caesar's own account of his expedition has been 
preserved. From it we gain a very clear idea of his 
experiences in this hitherto unknown country. He 
tells us that the Britons were brave, fierce, and warlike. 
Strabo, a Roman geographer, says that their houses 
were made of a conical framework of poles, with long 



12 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

willow branches twisted in and out. There were no 
windows nor chimneys. Another writer compares these 
dwellings to "huge bee-hives." The chiefs lived in 
huts which were regarded as extremely elegant, because 
the branches of which they were woven had been 
stripped of their bark. The more civilized people, who 
lived in the southern part of the country, cultivated 
the land to some extent ; but the inland tribes of the 
North had no knowledge of agriculture. They lived by 
raising flocks and herds, and by hunting wild animals. 
They wore coats of skins, and painted their bodies 
blue with the juice of a plant. Caesar tells us that 
they looked "dreadful" in battle. These people were 
pagans. Their priests were called Druids, and their 
religion is often spoken of as Druidism. Caesar says 
that they offered human sacrifices to their gods, making 
" huge images of osier-twigs," into which they put their 
living victims and then set fire to the cages. The 
Druids were not only the priests, but the judges of the 
people and the teachers of the children. At Carnac in 
France and at Stonehenge in England are works which 
have been ascribed to the Druids. They consist of large 
stones set up as if for monuments, or rude pillars for 
altars and temples. At Carnac the stones are placed 
in long avenues, but at Stonehenge they were origi- 
nally arranged in circles. No one knows what pur- 
pose they served, or whether the Druids really erected 
them. 

The Romans in England. — Julius Caesar did not 
succeed in conquering the warlike Britons, although 
for nearly five centuries after his invasion the Romans 
regarded Britannia as one of their provinces. They 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 13 

sent several expeditions to explore the country, but did 
not discover that it was an island until more than one 
hundred years after the time of Caesar. Agricola, who 
was then the ruler of the province, drove the fierce 
tribes of the North back to their native mountains, and 
built a wall across the island to prevent them from 
coming into the southern part of the country, where he 
had established the Roman dominion. The Romans 
held Britain in military subjection, keeping some of 
their legions there to overawe the people, just as for 
many years the English have maintained an army in 
India. Meanwhile the Romans were doing much to 
improve the country. They made roads, established 
trading-places, drained marshes, and taught the people 
to build houses and temples and baths in the Roman 
fashion. When Italy was invaded by barbarians from 
the North, the Romans, finding that their capital was 
in danger, hastily withdrew their army from Britain 
(426 A.D.). 

Effect of the Roman Occupation upon the Lan- 
guage. — Besides the soldiers and those directly inter- 
ested in the government of the province, so few Romans 
came to live in Britain that there was almost no inter- 
mingling of the races. For this reason, the language of 
the country was but little changed. It has been said 
that not more than a dozen Latin words were left by 
the Romans, and many of these were greatly changed 
in form. For example, the proper name Chester, with 
its compounds such as Dorchester, Manchester, and 
Winchester, is a corruption of the Latin castra, a forti- 
ned camp. So also are Worcester and Lancaster. It 
was in these camps that the Romans established mar- 



14 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

kets to which the Britons brought whatever they had 
to sell. In the course of time the camps became towns, 
which still bear the old names. Not more than one 
hundred Latin words have been added to our language 
by the five centuries of Roman rule. Most of them are 
proper names, nearly all ending in port, caster, cester, 
and chester. The word street is derived from stratia via, 
"paved way," the name applied to the Roman roads. 
It is estimated that the English language contains at 
least thirty thousand words of Latin origin ; but they 
were not introduced into England by the Romans. 

The Teutons. — A second great band of people who 
made their home in Europe were the Teutons or Ger- 
mans. They settled north of the Danube River and 
east of the Rhine ; also in Denmark and the adjoining 
countries. Here they became separated into various 
tribes, those of the greatest historical importance being 
the Goths, the Vandals, the Franks, the Angles, and 
the Saxons. A Roman historian, Tacitus, the son-in- 
law of Agricola, gives us a long account of these people. 
He describes them as having " eyes stern and blue, 
jrellow hair, and huge bodies." They did not live in 
cities, but each family occupied a little village of its 
own; and so in time the families grew into tribes, and 
the tribes into kingdoms. In civilization they were but 
little in advance of what the Britons had been in the 
days of Caesar. They spent much of their time in fierce 
quarrels among themselves, or in battle with the neigh- 
boring tribes. In peace they were indolent and fond 
of carousing. They invaded the neighboring provinces, 
and killed or drove away the inhabitants, and set up 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 

kingdoms of their own. The Franks settled in Gaul, 
and from them the name France is derived. The Goths 
set up a kingdom in Spain and one in Italy. It was 
when the Goths and the Vandals invaded the Roman 
provinces that the Romans had to withdraw their 
legions from Britain to defend their capital. They 
meant to return, but they never did ; for the Roman 
Empire was destroyed by these barbarians. Three of 
these Teutonic tribes, the Jutes, the Angles, and the 
Saxons, lived on the sea-coast near the mouth of the 
Elbe. They were bold pirates, who made incursions by 
water upon the neighboring countries, often ravaging 
the coasts of Britain. The Britons called them u sea- 
wolves," and doubtless they richly deserved the name. 

The Angles and Saxons in England. — After the 
withdrawal of the Roman forces from Britain, the Picts 
and Scots, the wild tribes who inhabited the northern 
part of the island, left their mountain homes and rav- 
aged the lands of their Celtic brethren at the South. 
The Britons were not as valiant as their ancestors had 
been ; and, despairing of success in their attempts to 
repel the invaders, they sent a piteous appeal to their 
Roman masters to come back and help them conquer 
their enemies. The Romans, however, were too busy 
with their own troubles to attend to the woes of the 
Britons. Then Vortigern, a British king, decided to 
hire his troublesome neighbors, the Angles and the 
Saxons, to aid him in this time of need, promising to 
give them money and land in return for their services. 
They accepted his offer, and helped to drive back the 
Picts and Scots ; but soon complained that he did not 
pay them well enough, and threatened to plunder the 



16 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

whole island unless he showed more liberality. When 
it was too late, the Britons repented of having asked 
help from these " sea- wolves " : for the German tribes 
made preparations to come over in great numbers and 
take the land if the Britons would not give it to them. 
It was about twenty-five years after the withdrawal of 
the Romans that these Teutonic invaders came into 
Britain, led by two chiefs, Hengist and Horsa. The 
Britons met them at Aylesford, Kent, and a great 
battle was fought, in which the invaders were victo- 
rious. The inhabitants were either slaughtered, en- 
slaved, or driven far to the westward, and the German 
tribes were left in possession of the greater part of the 
island. The exiled Britons fled to the mountains of 
Wales and Cornwall, to the islands adjoining Britain, 
and to a province in France, which is still known as 
Brittany. Meanwhile the Jutes, the Angles, and the 
Saxons continued to come over to Britain, where they 
formed kingdoms of their own. We can understand 
now what all this has to do with the history of our lan- 
guage ; for England is a contraction of Engla-land, and 
means "the land of the Angles" (or Engles), and these 
German tribes united to form the Ungle-ish (Englisc) 
or English people. 

Effect of the Saxon Conquest upon the Language. 
— In order to understand the great change which the 
coming of the Saxons made in the language of England, 
let us recall what happened when America was colonized 
by the nations of Europe. They drove the Indians 
farther and farther west, exterminating whole tribes of 
them. This is very much like the way in which the 
Saxons treated the Britons, in the fifth century. In the 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 17 

United States, the result was that the people who con- 
quered the country adopted but few of the Indian words. 
Some of them are tobacco, potato, moccasin, hominy, mush, 
wigwam, and tomahawk. At first the settlers retained 
the language of the country from which they came ; 
but in time, as the relations between the colonies became 
closer, the English, which was spoken in the most influ- 
ential colonies, became the language of the whole coun- 
try. In much the same way, the Celtic language was 
exterminated, so that only a few of our common words 
can be traced to the speech of the ancient Britons. 
Bard, glen, pool, boast, and cradle are among the words 
which are supposed to be of Celtic origin. So, too, as 
the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes mingled more and more, 
great changes became apparent in their form of speech, 
and in time the dialect of the West Saxons became the 
language of literature and of law. This is what is 
known as Old English. Thus it happens that the 
language of the Teutonic invaders is called sometimes 
the Anglo-Saxon, sometimes the Saxon, and sometimes the 
English. Still another point of resemblance between 
the fate of the Britons and that of the Indians may 
be noted. The remnant of the latter have been driven 
to the far West, where they retain, to some extent, 
their old habits of living and of speech. In the same 
way, the descendants of the Celtic exiles retained, in 
Wales and in Brittany, the customs and the language 
of their ancestors. 

Specimens of the Anglo-Saxon. — Compare these 
two versions of the Lord's Prayer with our modern 
version : — 



18 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Anglo-Saxon. 
Faeder ure, 1 >u j?e eart on heo- 
fenum, si )?in nama gehalgod. To 
be-cume Jnn rice. GeweorSe \>m 
willa on eorftan 2 swa swa on heo- 
fenum, Urne da3ghwamlican hlaf 
syle us to daeg. And f orgyf us ure 
gyltas, swa swa we f orgyf aft urum 
gyltendum. And ne gelled |?u us 
on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle. 
Softlice. 



Old English. 
Wycliffe, 1380. 

Oure fadir that art in hevenes 
Halowid be thi name, Thi kyng- 
dom come to. Be thy wille don in 
erthe, as in hevene. 

Gyve to us this dai oure breed 
over othir substaunce. And for- 
gyve to us oure dettis as we for- 
gyven to oure dettouris, and lede 
us not into temptacioun. But de- 
lyvere us from yvel. Amen. 



We should find it difficult to read the first of these, 
though we can guess what most of the words mean. It 
is interesting to notice how the Saxon tongue gradually 
changed in form, and how our modern English has im- 
proved upon the style of the first English translation of 
the Bible. 

Among the poems translated by Longfellow is one 
from the early English. It is called " The Grave," and 
was written about the year 1200. Compare the first 
stanza of the translation with the original: — 



De wes bold gebyld 
er J>u iboren were 
$e wes mold imynt 
er ftu of moder come 
ac hit nes no idiht 
ne J>eo deopnes imeten : 
nes gyt iloced 
hu long hit >e were : 
Nu me >e bringseft 
J>er ftu beon scealt 
nu me sceal J>e meten 
and fta mold seoftfla. 



For thee was a house built 
Ere thou wert born, 
For thee was a mould meant 
Ere thou of mother earnest. 
But it is not made ready, 
Nor its depth measured, 
Nor is it seen 
How long it shall be. 
Now I bring thee 
Where thou shalt be ; 
Now I shall measure thee, 
And the mould afterwards. 



i )>=*/*. 



2% = dh. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 19 

Christianity in England. — It is not known just how 
Christianity was first introduced into Britain ; but one 
of the theories is that some of the Roman soldiers who 
had been led by the preaching of St. Peter or St. Paul to 
give up the worship of pagan gods, taught the new faith 
to some of the Britons with whom they came in con- 
tact. There are traditions, too, that missionaries from 
Gaul crossed over to Britain before the time of the 
Anglo-Saxon Conquest. After the Celts had been driven 
into Wales and Cornwall, the Christian religion con- 
tinued to spread among them. The English invaders, 
however, brought with them from their old home on the 
southern shores of the Baltic the worship of the sun, 
and moon ; of Tiw, the god of heaven ; of Woden (or 
Odin), the god of war ; of Thor (or Thunder), the god 
of storms ; of Frea (or Friga), the goddess of peace and 
plenty ; and of Seterne, of whom little is known except 
the name. Our names for the days of the week were 
first given in honor of these gods and goddesses. More 
than a century after the settlement of the Saxons in 
England, they were converted to Christianity by Roman 
missionaries, chief among whom was Augustine. The 
story of their conversion is told by the Venerable Bede, 
an Anglo-Saxon monk who was born about seventy-five 
years after Augustine went to England, and who wrote 
the History of the Anglo-Saxon Church. He relates 
that Gregory, who afterwards became Pope Gregory 
the Great, passing through the market-place of Rome, 
noticed among the slaves exposed for sale some remark- 
ably handsome boys. When he was told to what nation 
they belonged, he said, "With those fair faces, they 
should be, not Angles, but Angels." The historian goes 



20 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

on to say that when Gregory became pope, he did 
not rest until he had sent missionaries to convert these 
people. The church services were conducted in Latin ; 
and probably not a few words which have come to us 
from that language were introduced into England by 
the missionaries, during the sixth and seventh centuries. 
The English People. — It has already been said that 
the Teutons did not all come into the country at one 
time. Gradually their numbers and their power in- 
creased, until there were seven prominent kingdoms, 
which are often called the " Heptarchy," from a Greek 
word meaning " the rule of seven." But we must not 
suppose that exactly seven kingdoms existed at one 
time under one common ruler. The Jutes owned one 
kingdom, which retained its British name of Kent. 
The Saxons owned three kingdoms, — Wes-sex, Es- 
sex, and Sus-sex, the names being equivalents of West 
Saxons, East Saxons, and South Saxons. The Angles 
owned the largest territory, having three kingdoms, 
— Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumberland. This 
last means the land north of the Humber. East Anglia, 
the home of the East Angles, was divided between 
the North-folk and the South folk, from which names 
come Norfolk and Suffolk. The different tribes so 
often quarrelled among themselves that the number 
and the boundaries of their kingdoms were continually 
changing. Nevertheless, the English, as we may now 
call them, made great progress in learning and civili- 
zation. In time, the kingdom of the West Saxons 
became the ruling one. Their most famous king was 
Alfred the Great, who became king of Wessex in 871. 
He was a brave warrior, a persevering scholar, a wise 
ruler, and a good and noble man. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 21 

The Danish Invasions. — The enemies whom the 
English had to fight in the days of Alfred were the 
Scandinavians, often called simply the Danes, and 
sometimes the Norsemen or Northmen. They lived in 
the-southern part of Denmark, in part of Norway and 
Sweden, and in the very countries from which the 
English had come. They were savage heathen, as the 
Saxons had once been. During the ninth and tenth 
centuries they made many incursions into England, 
plundering the towns, burning the monasteries and 
churches, and massacring the people. Sometimes they 
made alliance with the Welsh, and ravaged the adjoin- 
ing kingdom of Wessex. They were often defeated in 
battle, but never lost their foot-hold in the country. 
Sometimes they obtained control of the kingdom ; so 
that in the list of the kings of England during the 
eleventh century there are several Danish names. 
Among these Danish sovereigns was King Canute, who, 
according to the well-known story, tried to make the 
sea retire at his command. The history of this period 
is full of accounts of wars between the Danes and the 
English. 

Effect of the Danish Invasion upon the Language 
of England. — The Danes, it must be remembered, 
belonged to the same Teutonic race with the Saxons ; 
so it was comparatively easy for them to settle down in 
England as part of the English people. They were soon 
converted to Christianity, and became almost as civilized 
as the Saxons. Their language was so closely related 
to the English that their coming into England made no 
great change in the speech of that country. Among 
the words introduced by the Danes are bait, fling, gust, 



22 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

ransack, rap, whisk, whirl, and whim. Whitby, Derby, 
Enderby, etc., are Danish names, the termination by 
meaning town. 

The Northmen. — While some of the Norsemen were 
plundering England, others of them were making the 
same sort of trouble in France. They were just such 
fierce roving pirates as the Saxons had been in the fifth 
century. Under the leadership of the Vikings, as their 
chiefs were called, they made their first visits to the 
coast of France during the reign of the great Emperor 
Charlemagne, about the year 800. Again and* again 
they came in ever-increasing numbers, and many times 
they seized upon portions of the land and dwelt there. 
Finally the French were obliged to submit to their 
remaining in the country, just as the English had to 
share their possessions with the Danes in order to make 
peace with them. At the beginning of the tenth cen- 
tury the king of France ceded to Rollo, the leader of 
the Northmen, a large province in the north of France. 
This was called Normandy, and its inhabitants came to 
be known as Normans. They soon learned to imitate 
the manners and customs of the French people, and 
to speak their language. The ruler of the province 
became a vassal of the French king, and had the title 
of Duke. When the Normans had lived in France 
about one hundred years, they were, in some things, 
far superior to the English. Their speech was more 
refined, their social habits more polite, and their minds 
much better cultivated. Being so near neighbors, they 
became, of course, well acquainted with the English, 
and some of the early English kings married the daugh- 
ters of the Norman nobles. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 23 

The Norman Conquest. — William, Duke of Nor- 
mandy, determined to become king of England. He 
asserted that the throne, had been promised him by- 
Edward the Confessor, the English king who built 
Westminster Abbey. Edward's mother was a Norman 
lady, and he had spent all of his early life in her native 
land ; so it is not strange that he should have been 
very fond of the Normans and of their ways. When 
he became king, he offended his subjects by showing 
his partiality too plainly. He invited the Norman 
nobles over to England, and appointed them to the 
highest offices in the kingdom. Edward had no chil- 
dren, and so the Saxon people were very anxious as to 
who should be his successor. Their choice was Harold, 
the brother of Edward's wife and the son of Earl 
Godwin, one of the Saxon nobles. Not long before 
this, Harold had been shipwrecked on the coast of 
France, and had been befriended by William. While 
Harold was at the court of Normandy, apparently a 
guest but really a prisoner, William made him promise 
in the most solemn manner, that in case of Edward's 
death, he would do all in his power to help William 
gain the English crown. Edward died in January, 
1066, and in spite of his promise to William, Harold 
made great haste to be crowned in Westminster Abbey. 
When William heard of this, he spent several months 
in collecting an army, and then sailed for England. 
Harold, at the head of the Saxon army, marched to 
meet him at Hastings ; and there a terrible battle was 
fought, in which the Normans were victorious, and 
Harold was slain. This battle of Hastings, fought on 
Oct. 14, 1066, is regarded as one of the most important 
events in history. 



24 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The Normans in England. — When William of Nor- 
mandy, better known as William the Conqueror, became 
king of England, the Normans came over in great 
numbers, seized the estates which belonged to the 
Saxon nobles, and took the political and religious gov- 
ernment into their own hands. The Saxons became 
really the servants of the Normans. William was very 
severe in dealing with his new subjects. They were 
heavily taxed, and in order to be exact in the matter, 
he caused an inventory of each man's personal property 
and a careful survey of his land to be made, the whole 
being recorded in the " Domesday Book," which is still 
in existence. More than this, he massacred all the 
inhabitants of towns which rebelled against his decrees ; 
and laid waste many villages in order to make himself 
a hunting-ground, "the New Forest," giving the Saxons 
nothing in return for their land. The Norman barons 
imitated their king in harshness and insolence towards 
the conquered Saxons. Much good, however, came out 
of all this evil. With all their faults, the Normans 
were in some respects superior to the Saxons. The}' 
were more enterprising and ambitious, more refined 
and cultivated. They were better soldiers, too, and 
better mechanics. Besides, they had broader ideas, 
and knew more about other countries in the world. 
The two races found that there were many good things 
which they could learn from each other ; and so in the 
course of many generations the old relations of master 
and servant disappeared, and the two formed a united 
people. The Saxons ceased to hate their conquer- 
ors, and the Normans were proud to call themselves 
English. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 25 

Effect of the Norman Conquest upon the English 
Language. — The Normans tried to have their lan- 
guage become the national speech. It was spoken in 
the schools, the camps, the courts, and the churches. 
It was also the language of the higher circles of society. 
Thus it happens that we have many Latin and French 
words pertaining to military science, to the law, to art, 
to poetry, and to the courtesies of social life, most of 
which were brought in by the Normans. We must 
remember that they spoke what was called the Nor- 
man-French, having adopted not only the religion, but 
the language of the people in whose land they had 
come to dwell. The Norman-French was really the 
Latin language, which had been corrupted by the 
Celtic speech of the Gauls and by the Teutonic tongue 
of the Franks, and which was possibly modified by the 
Norse dialects. It is often called the " unlettered " 
idiom, in order to distinguish it from the Latin of clas- 
sical literature. The main reason why the Normans 
did not succeed in making French the language of 
England was that the measures by which they sought 
to gain this end were so harsh that the Saxons rebelled 
and stubbornly refused to obey the dictates of their 
conquerors. Another reason was that the Saxons were 
so much more numerous than their masters. In their 
homes and about their daily business they used the 
familiar Saxon words, instead of the more polished 
speech of the French. As time went on, the two races 
intermarried; and so these simple Saxon terms came 
into general use. If we compare some of our Saxon 
words with those of like meaning which come to us 
from the Latin or French, we shall notice that the 



26 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



"every-day" words are commonly Saxon ; and the more 
ornamental, " high-sounding " ones of foreign origin. 
For example, we have — 



Saxon. 


Foreign. 


Like, 


similar. 


Many, 


numerous. 


Almighty, 


omnipotent. 


Heavenly, 


celestial. 


Truth, 


veracity. 


Happiness, 


felicity. 



The greatest effect of the Norman Conquest upon the 
language was that it introduced the habit of borrowing 
words from other languages. Before the Conquest the 
English had hated everything foreign, and had clung to 
their old forms of speech. When the Normans became 
a part of the English nation, these prejudices gradually 
disappeared, until it became the most natural thing 
in the world to use many foreign words. This habit 
once formed was not easy to break; so the English 
have continued to enrich their language in this way. 
Another result of the Conquest was that it led to great 
improvements in the structure of the language. To 
see what a serious thing English grammar used to 
be, let us compare our adjective pronoun that with 
the inflection of the Anglo-Saxon )>cet, as given by 
Angus. 

Plural. 



ha. 
>ara. 
J>am. 
J>a. 







Singular. 






Mas. 


Fern. 


Neut 


Nom. 


se 


seo 


J?aet 


Gen. 


J?aes 


Here 


>aes 


Bat. 


}>am 


J?sere 


barn 


Ace. 


J>one 


J>a 


J>aBt 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 27 

Growth of the Language. — Since the Norman Con- 
quest there has been no invasion of sufficient importance 
to cause any great change in the language. The English 
of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is really the 
same language which we speak. It does not look like 
it, to be sure ; but, as one writer says, " Neither does a 
child a year old look as he does when he has become 
a man fifty years old." The language has only " grown 
up," as the child does. We call the Latin and the 
Greek " dead languages," because they are no longer in 
constant use as the speech of any people. The English, 
on the other hand, is not only a living language, but a 
growing one. Changes are constantly taking place in 
the spelling and pronunciation of words, and in gram- 
matical forms. There are fashions in language, as in 
many other things. If we examine a book published 
more than one hundred years ago, we find many things 
that look very odd. Many of the s's look like /'s; 
music and public have k added to the last syllable of 
each ; honor and labor have u in the second syllable. 

The following is copied from an article which ap- 
peared in the " Connecticut Journal" of Oct. 19, 1796 : — 

"It cannot be expected, that, if, happily, our Judges fhould be 
competent to the tafk, they will apply themf elves with affidui- 
ty, to the reduction of our common law from a ftate of chaotick 
confufion to fyf tematic order ; when the Legif lature at their next 
feffions, without even a plaufible reafon, may deprive them of their 
feats. This would be, indeed, to labour for the meat that perifheih." 

The past tense of speak used to be spake, which is 
often used in the Bible. In olden times a well-educated 
man would no more have said I spoke than he would 
have said I done and I seen. In Shakespeare's time the 
pronoun its had just come into the language. Now we 



28 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

should not know how to get along without this useful 
little word. New words are all the time being intro- 
duced, and old words are gaining new meanings. A 
great many illustrations may be found in the " Supple- 
ment" to the large dictionaries. In order to understand 
how the language came to have its present form, we 
must notice some of the ways in which it has grown. 

Influence of Commerce. — As civilization increased, 
the English became great travellers and traders, and 
sent out colonies into all parts of the known world. 
Naturally, the travellers introduced foreign terms in 
telling the story of their wanderings; and the traders 
brought back to England with the strange productions 
of other lands, the native names for the articles. Some- 
times the name was derived from the name of the place 
whence the merchandise came; for example, damask, 
from Damascus ; calico, from Calicut in India ; sardine, 
from Sardinia. The colonists almost unconsciously in- 
troduced into the language many forms of expression 
which they were in the habit of hearing from the 
natives about them, just as a child who has a French or 
a German nurse learns to speak her language without 
realizing that it is a foreign tongue. 

Influence of Education. — The growth of our lan- 
guage is mainly due to the increase of learning and to 
the multiplication of books. In the Middle Ages almost 
all the books were written in Latin. The learned men 
of that time knew more about that language than they 
did about their own. King Alfred translated several 
books into the Anglo-Saxon, so that the common people 
could read them ; but most of the kings cared too little 
about learning to take so much trouble. Before the 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29 

invention of printing, the making of books was almost 
entirely confined to the monasteries, where the patient 
monks spent years in copying a single Latin work on 
philosophy or religion. A great many Latin words were 
introduced into our language in this way. Education 
has now become so general that the English-speaking 
people are familiar with most of the other languages 
spoken in the world ; and the "making of many books" 
has brought within the reach of the common people the 
thought and research of all the centuries. In this way, 
mainly, has come into use a vast number of foreign 
words. At first they are distinguished from English 
words by being printed in Italics or inclosed in quota- 
tion marks; but in time this distinction ceases to be 
made, and they are said to be " domesticated." Such 
words are often Anglicized; that is, the spelling and 
pronunciation are changed to make them look and 
sound more like English words. From the Italian we 
have obtained our musical terms, and from the French 
our terms of cookery and fashion. Many such words 
can be traced back to the Latin. We can generally 
tell whether a word comes directly from the Latin or 
indirectly through the French, by noticing its form. 
If the spelling has been changed, it is almost sure to 
have come through the French. This may be nfore 
apparent from the following examples : — 

Latin. Directly from the Latin. Through the French. 

Populus, popular, people. 

Fructus, fructify, fruit. 

Deceptum, deception, deceit. 

Fidelis, fidelity, fealty. 

Regis, regal, royal. 

Fragilis, fragile, frail. 



30 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Influence of Science. — The prominence that was 
given to classical studies during the Middle Ages will 
account for the fact that most of the terms which were 
peculiar to the sciences then known are of classical 
origin. In the modern sciences, scholars have followed 
the same usage, borrowing almost invariably from the 
Greek. It is estimated that nine-tenths of our scientific^^ 
terms are Greek. Arithmetic, Geography, Grammar, andx 
History are all Greek names, as are many of the terms 
which are used in them. With the progress of educa- 
tion, these technical terms, as they are called, have 
become more and more widely known ; and they form 
an important element in our language. 

Influence of Invention and Discovery. — Many 
words have been added to our language as one result 
of the mechanical ingenuity of the English-speaking 
people. They seem to be less ingenious in word-making 
than they are in machine-making ; and instead of form- 
ing words out of elements in their own language, they 
go to the Latin or the Greek to find names for their 
inventions and discoveries. We have, to be sure, such 
words as steamboat, railroad, type-writer, and oil-well, 
which were formed from elements already in use ; but 
they are few, as compared with the names of classical 
origin, such as telegraph, locomotive, bicycle, and petro- 
leum. The Germans, on the other hand, prefer to use 
home-made names for their inventions. For example, 
they call the telephone a " far-speaker." They use 
many of these compounds, too, in place of the classical 
n antes in science and literature. Their name for hydro- 
gen may be translated water-substance, and their word 
for dictionary is the very sensible compound, word-book. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31 

Influence of New Ideas. — During the latter half 
of the nineteenth century not a few words have been 
introduced from other languages, or deliberately coined, 
to express new ideas in art, science, literature, politics, 
philosophy, and religion. New subjects of thought oc- 
cupy the minds of men; new phases of society, new 
to^iifestions of life and duty and destiny. Sometimes 
lere is a word already in use which can be made to 
express this new thought. We have a host of these 
old words with modern meanings. For example, social 
science; differentiation, as used in metaphysics ; evolution, 
as used in geology; free-trader ;* anarchist; probation 
after death; realistic, as used in art and literature. 
Some of the new words which have been introduced 
in this way are Nihilism, optimist, pessimist, impression- 
ist, as an art term ; agnostic, dude, mugwump, and uni- 
versology. 

Number of Words in the English Language. — It 
is estimated that the large dictionaries contain more 
than one hundred thousand words. Of these, a com- 
paratively small number — Professor Whitney says, from 
three to five, thousand — are all that even cultivated 
people need to use for the ordinary purposes of speak- 
ing and writing. It is said that Shakespeare used about 
fifteen thousand different words. 

Elements of the English Language. — The English 
language is said to be " composite," because it is com- 
posed of words from other languages. No other tongue 
is made up of parts taken from so many sources. For 
this reason, it is very perplexing to foreigners, since 
the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning of the different 
classes of words cannot be determined by any one set 



32 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

of rules. There is this advantage, however, in its being 
made up of so many elements : there are several ways 
of expressing a single idea, so that variety is easily se- 
cured. Besides, we can express more accurately slight 
distinctions in meaning and delicate shades of thought 
than is possible in other languages. The most impor- 
tant elements have already been mentioned and their 
presence in the language explained. We will now 
review them in the form of a summary. 

am 

ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Celtic. — Few words left by ancient Britons. Some through 
French, Spanish, and Italian. 

Scandinavian. — Introduced by Danes in ninth and tenth cen- 
turies. Some brought by Northmen into France, and thence into 
England after the Conquest. 

Saxon. — Of words in large dictionaries, less than one-half are 
Saxon. Of words in common use, about four-fifths are Saxon. 

Latin. — A few Latin words left by Romans ; all proper names. 
Ecclesiastical terms introduced by missionaries. Words coming 
through French, Italian, and Spanish. Introduced by learned men 
and education. Nearly one-half of the words in the dictionary are 
Latin in origin. 

Greek. — Nine-tenths of all our scientific terms, introduced by 
scholars and books. Also names for inventions. 

Miscellaneous. — Introduced mainly by commerce. Either 
native names for articles of merchandise, or names derived from 
names of places. Ex. damask, from Damascus ; tariff, from 
Tarifa; cambric, from Cambray; chestnut, from Castanea, in 
Pontus ; ermine, from Armenia ; muslin, from Mosul ; florin, 
from Florence; canary, from the Canary Islands. 

Hebrew. — Ex. seraphim, cherubim, amen, ephod, jubilee, sab- 
bath, cinnamon, Satan, shibboleth, manna. 



HISTORY OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 33 

Arabic. — Ex. algebra, almanac, elixir, zero, talisman, coffee, 
sugar, lemon, giraffe, gazelle, syrup, alcohol, magazine, cotton, as- 
sassin, mosque. 

Persian. — Ex. caravan, dervish, scarlet, azure, lilac, chess, bazaar, 
shawl, turban, orange, horde, paradise. 

Turkish. — Ex. divan, scimitar, dragoman, tulip, ottoman, kiosk. 

Chinese. — Ex. tea, Bohea, Hyson, china (ware), joss, junk, Nan- 
keen. 

Malay. — Ex. bantam, sago, ratan, gutta-percha, bamboo, gong, 
mandarin, mango, caddy, cassowary. 

Hindu. — Ex. calico, chintz, toddy, lac, jungle, banyan, bunga- 
low, pagoda, palanquin, shampoo. 

Polynesian. — Ex. taboo, tattoo, kangaroo, boomerang. 

West Indian. — Ex. tobacco, maize, hurricane, canoe, cannibal, 
buccaneer. 

North American. — Ex. squaw, tomahawk, wigwam, mush, opos- 
sum, mustang, tomato, pemmican, chocolate (Mexican). 

South American. — Ex. hammock, potato, tolu, caoutchouc, 
guano, mahogany, pampas, tapioca. 

Italian. — Ex. banditti, gazette, canto, opera, piano, soprano, 
piazza, malaria, umbrella, concert, carnival, studio, regatta, volcano, 
ditto. 

Spanish. — Ex. mosquito, negro, alligator, cigar, grandee, cork, 
Creole, desperado, tornado, vanilla, Eldorado, indigo, buffalo. 

Portuguese. — Ex. palaver, caste, marmalade, molasses, lasso, 
cocoa-nut, albatross, cobra, fetich. 

French. — Ex. etiquette, belle, depot, penchant, matinee, em- 
ploye, debris, ennui, trousseau, debut, petite, menu, soire'e, regime, 
canard. 

Dutch. — Ex. yacht, sloop, schooner, yawl, ballast, boor, reef, 
skates, smack, smuggle. 

African. — Ex. gnu, gorilla, kraal, zebra, guinea, oasis. 

Egyptian. — Ex. ammonia. 

Russian. — Ex. knout, czar, drosky, rouble, steppe. 



34 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



QUESTIONS FOE KEVIEW. 

1 . From what is the word language derived ? 

1 2. Mention three meanings of the word. 

3. What is meant by Linguistics? 

4. How old is the science, as compared with others? 

5. What is a theory ? 

6. State three theories as to the origin of language. 

7. Which do you accept? Why? 

8. Why cannot we tell what were the beginnings of speech? 

9. State three theories on this subject. 

10. Which seems the most reasonable? 

11. What was the old theory about the original language? 

12. How was it proved to be incorrect? 

13. What other science was based upon a mistaken notion? 

14. What was the Sanskrit? 

15. To what discoveries did the study of this language lead? 

16. What is meant by the term family of languages ? 

17. Give three names for the largest family of languages. 

18. Explain how this familr was formed. 

19. Give two names for the second great family. 

20. How many dialects are there in the world? 

21. Why do we not classify all of them into families? 

22. What seven groups of languages belong to the Indo- 

European family? 

23. What is the oldest of the languages of India? 

24. Of the languages of Persia? 

25. Of Germany? 

26. Where do the Latin and the Greek belong in this classi- 

fication ? 

/ 27. What old translations of the Bible are mentioned? 

28. What modern languages are Celtic? 

29. To what group does the Russian language belong? 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35 

30. The Norwegian ? The French? The Welsh? 

31. What is the place of the English language in this family ? 

32. What are the chief Semitic languages? 

33. Why is this family an interesting one? 

34. What can you say about any of its members ? 

35. Explain what is meant by hi flection. 

36. Give examples of inflectional languages. 

37. What is the peculiarity of Semitic inflection? 

38. How do the members of the Indo-European family 

resemble one another? 

39. How do you account for these resemblances? 

40. Where was the traditional home of Japhet? 

41. What theory in regard to the settlement of Asia and 

Europe ? 

42. What reason to suppose that the Celts were the first to 

go westward ? 

43. What can you tell about the Britons ? 

44. How did the Romans become interested in them? 

45. Explain the names Britain and Briton. 

46. Who led the first Roman expedition against the Britons ? 

When ? 

47. What was the result? 

48. Who were the Druids? 

49. Where is Carnac ? Stonehenge? Why interesting? 

50. How long did the Romans claim Britain? 

51. What were the relations between the two races? 

52. Are there any traces in England of the Roman rule? 

Where ? 

53. Why did the Romans leave Britain? 

54. What was the effect of the Roman occupation upon the 

language? 

55. Give an example of the words left by the Romans. 

56. What can you tell about the Teutons? 

57. What is the origin of the name France? 



36 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

58. What kingdoms were established by the Goths? 

59. Why did not the Romans return to Britain? 

60. When and why were they asked to return? 

61. What tribes of the Teutons lived on the southern shores 

of the Baltic Sea ? 

62. What kind of people were they? 

63. Who was Vortigern? What bargain did he make? 

64. Why did he repent of it? 

65. Give an account of the Saxon Conquest. 

66. What was the fate of the Britons? 

67. What other people have been similarly treated? 

68. Give another name for Brittany. 

69. Mention some Celtic words in our language. 

70. Explain the term Saxon Heptarchy. 

71. Where did the Jutes live? The Angles? The Saxons? 

72. From which tribe did the country take its name? Why? 

73. Explain the term Anglo-Saxon. 

74. What is the origin of names for days of the week? 

75. Who was Alfred the Great? 

76. How was Christianity introduced into England? 

77. Who was Wycliffe? " 

78. What can you say of the Danes? 

79. Name one of their kings. 

80. How long did their incursions last? 

81. What were some of the words introduced by them? 

82. Why was the language so little changed by their coming? 

83. Explain the terms Northmen, Vikings, Normandy, 

Scandinavia. 

84. When did the Northmen invade France? 

85. What was the result? 

86. Explain the expression Norman-French. 

87. What events led to the Norman Conquest? 

88. When and how did the Normans conquer England? 

89. Who was the last of the Saxon kings? The first of the 

Normans ? 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37 

90. Compare the Norman and the Saxon people. 

91. What were the relations between the two races in 

England ? 

92. What is the " Domesday Book " ? 

93. What two races united to form the English people? 

94. How did the Normans try to make their language 

popular? 

95. Explain what language they spoke. 

96. Why did they not succeed? 

97. What difference do we notice between words from the 

two sources? 

98. How did the Norman Conquest affect the language? 

99. Have any later events in history made any great 

changes in it? 

100. What are " dead" languages? 

101. Show that our language is growing. 

102. Mention five ways in which words have been introduced 

since the Norman Conquest. 

103. Give examples of words introduced by commerce. 

104. What was the state of learning in the Middle Ages? 

105. In what way, chiefly, have Latin words been introduced 

into English ? 

106. Explain the expressions Anglicized, domesticated. 

107. What kind of words do we borrow from the French? 

From the Italian? 

108. Explain and illustrate the two classes of words bor- 

rowed from the Latin. 

109. From what languages, mainly, do we derive our 

scientific terms? Why? 

110. What are techniccd terms? 

111. Illustrate " home-made" names for inventions. 

112. What are some of the names borrowed for this purpose? 

113. What is the usage of the Germans, in this respect? 

Illustrate. 



38 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

114. Give examples of words used to express new ideas. 

115. How many words are there in our language? 

116. What part of these are Saxon? Latin? 

117. What advantages does the English language possess? 

118. Account for the Celtic words in our language. The 

Scandinavian. The Latin. The Greek. The Saxon. 

119. Give one word derived from each of the following: 

Hebrew, Persian, Italian, Spanish, etc. 

120. Why is the English language called our mother-tongue? 



REFERENCES. 

Language and the Study of Language. Whitney. 

History of the English Language. Lounsbury. 

English, Past and Present. Trench. 

Lectures on the English Language. Marsh. 

Language and Languages, Farrar. 

Life and Growth of Language. Whitney. 

Origin and History of the English Language. Marsh. 

Studies in English. Scheie De Yere. 

Philology of the English Tongue. [New edition.] Earle. 

Hand-Book of the English Tongue. Angus. 

The English Language. Meiklejohn. 

Science of Language. Max Miiller. 

A Child's History of England. [Hastings.] Dickens. 

Lectures on the History of England. Guest. 

Leading Facts in English History. Montgomery. 

Childhood of the English Nation. Armitage. 

The Making of England. Green. 

History of England for Beginners. Buckley. 

Decisive Events in History. [Hastings.] Archer. 

Short History of the English People. Green. 

History of the Anglo-Saxons.. Sharon Turner. 

A Short History of the Norman Conquest. Freeman. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39 

Old English History for Children. Freeman. 

Alfred the Great. Hughes. 

Traces of History in the Names of Places. Edmunds. 

The Norman Baron. The Skeleton in Armor. Longfellow. 

The Count of the Saxon Shore. Church. 

The Visit of the Vikings. T. W. Higginson. Harper's, Sept., 1882. 

Vol. LXV. p. 515. 
The Viking Ship. John S. White. Scribner's, Nov., 1887. Vol. 

II. p. 604. 
The Bayeux Tapestry. Edward J. Lowell. Scribner's, March, 

1887. Vol. I. p. 333. 



40 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 

The Study of Etymology. — In order to use good 
English, we must know how to choose our words. To 
this end, we should learn to tell from the looks of a 
word whether it is really English or borrowed from 
some other tongue. We should know r , too, just what 
the word means, so as to be able to use it in the right 
way. For this reason, we must learn the most impor- 
tant principles of Etymology, the science which treats 
of the derivation and meaning of words. An explana- 
tion of terms used in the science is given below, for the 
benefit of any who may not be familiar with them. 

The Root of a Word. — When a word cannot be 
reduced to a simpler form in the language to which it 
belongs, it is called a root, a radical, or a primitive 
word. Ex. go, man. 

Compound Words. — When a word is formed by 
uniting two or more simple words, it is called a com- 
pound word. Ex. butter-fly, rose-bud. 

Derivative Words. — When a word is made by join- 
ing to a root either a prefix or a suffix, or both, it is 
called a derivative word. 

A Prefix is a syllable or syllables placed before the 
root, to vary the meaning of the word ; as, 27-legal, not 
legal. 

A Suffix is a syllable or syllables placed at the end 



THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 41 

of a root, to vary the meaning of the word ; as, stud- 
ent, one who studies. 

An Affix is the general name, referring to a syllable 
fixed to the root. It is, therefore, applied to either a 
prefix or a suffix. 

Two Great Elements of the Language. — The Eng- 
lish language, as has been shown, is made up of words 
from many sources ; but for convenience, it may be 
considered as containing two main elements : — ■ 

1. The Anglo-Saxon, including words from other Teu- 
tonic tongues, such as the Danish. 

2. The Classical, including the Latin and the Greek. 

Importance of the Anglo-Saxon Element. — The 

Anglo-Saxon element is the more important, for two 
reasons : — 

First Because it is the native part of the language. 
Second. Because it is the larger element in common use 
among English-speaking people. 

Numerical Ratio of the Two Elements. — It has 

been shown in the preceding chapter that of the words 
in the dictionary, less than one-half are Saxon, nearly 
one-half Latin, and the remainder Greek and miscel- 
laneous in origin. In common use, however, the num- 
ber of Saxon words is relatively greater, because almost 
all the connecting words and the articles, pronouns, 
and auxiliary verbs are of Saxon origin, and these are 
used more frequently than any other words. It has 
been found by actual count that in the writings of 
about twenty good English authors, thirty-two words 
in forty are of Saxon origin. In Shakespeare and 



42 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Milton, thirty-three words in forty are Saxon. The 
Bible is written in purer English than any other book 
which we have, some parts of it containing thirty-nine 
Saxon words in forty. 

How we may know Saxon Words. — Two things 
help us to determine whether a word is of Anglo-Saxon 
origin : first, the form of the word ; second, the sense 
in which it is used. It must be borne in mind that there 
are exceptions to some of the rules which follow. For 
example, un is a Saxon prefix, but we find it in many 
words of Latin origin. In all doubtful cases, the pupil 
should consult the etymological dictionary. 

Words distinguished as Saxon by their Form. 

(a) Our Articles : a, an, the. 

All Pronouns : we, this, which, etc. 

All Auxiliary Verbs : have, may, will. 

All Adjectives compared irregularly : good, bad, little. 

Nearly all Irregular and Defective Verbs : am, go, 

ought. 
Nearly all Prepositions and Conjunctions : and, with, 
by, as. 

(6) Nearly all words which, in any of their forms, undergo 

vowel changes. 
Adjectives with two comparisons : old, older, oldest. 

elder, eldest. 
Adjectives changed to nouns : strong, strength. 
Nouns changed to verbs : bliss, bless. 
Nouns forming plurals by vowel change : foot, feet. 
Verbs with strong preterites : fall, fell. 
Verbs changed by form from intransitive to transitive 

rise, raise. 



THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 43 

(c) Most words of one syllable. 

Parts of the body: head, ear, skull, (not face). 

The senses : sight, touch, smell. 

Infirmities : blind, lame, deaf. 

The elements: fire, wind, frost, (not air). 

Products : grass, corn, bread. 

Fuel : coal, wood, peat. 

Domestic animals : cat, dog, horse. 

(d) All words beginning with wh, Ten, sh: when, know, 

shine. 
Most words beginning with ea, ye, gl, th: each, yearn, 

glad, thus. 
Most words ending with £, th : beat, truth. 

(<?) Most compound and derivative words, the elements of 
which exist and have a meaning in English : horse- 
back, shipwreck, winsome. 

(/) Most words with Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes. 



ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 

1. a- = in, on, at (corruption of on). 

a-bed, in bed. a-board, on board, a-back, at the back, 

2. be- =by. 

be-cause, by cause. 

It is often intensive, as in be-stir, be- deck, be-come. 

3. for- = against, away. 

for-bid, to bid against, for-bear, to bear away. 
for-give, formerly to give away. 

4. fore- = before. 

fore-tell, to tell before. 

5. mis- denotes wrong, evil. 

mis-take, to take wrongly, mis-chance, ill chance. 



44 LESSONS IK ENGLISH. 

6. n- =not. 

n-ever, not ever, 
n-either, not either, 
n-one, not one. 

7. out- = beyond. 

out-law, beyond the law. 

8. over- = above, or beyond the limit. 

over-spread, to spread above 
over-do, to do too much. 

9. to- — (corruption of the). 

to-day, the day. to-morrow, the morrow. 

10. un- = not. 

un-truth, not the truth, 
un-honored, not honored. 

11. under- = beneath. 

under-go, to go beneath. 

12. with- = against. 

with-stand, to stand against. 



ANGLO-SAXON SUFFIXES. 

Noun Suffixes =one who (agent). 

1. -ar. li-ar, one who lies. 

2. -ard. drunk-ard, one who drinks. 

3. -er. cri-er, one who cries. 

4. -yer. law-yer, one who understands law. 

5. -ster. young-ster, one who is young. 

Noun Suffixes = state, condition, quality. 

6. -dom. king-dom, state of a king. 

7. -ship. friend-ship, condition of friends. 

8. -hood, man-hood, state of man. 

9. -head, god-head, same as god-hood. 

10. -ness. good-ness, quality of being good. 



THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 45 

Noun Suffixes = little. 

11. -ling. dar-ling, a little dear. 

12. -kin. lamb-kin, a little lamb. 

13. -ie. dog-gie, a little dog. 

14. -ock. hill-ock, a little bill. 

15. -let. stream-let, a fo'tf/e stream. (From the French.) 

16. -en. chick-en, a little chick. 

Adjective Suffixes — like, having the quality of, relating 
to. 

17. -ful. cheer-ful, having the quality of cheer. 

18. -ly. kingly, like a king. 

19. -ish. boy-ish, having the qualities of a boy. 

Engl-ish, originating with the Angles. 

20. -en. wood-en, having qualities of wood. 

21. -ern. north-ern, relating to the north. 

22. -y. gloom-y, having the qualities of gloom. 

23. -like. god-like, like a god. 

Miscellaneous Suffixes. 

24. -less = loss, hope-less, with loss of hope. 

25. -some, lone-some, hand-some. 

26. -teen = ten. four-teen, four and ten. 

27. -ty (from tig) — decade, for-ty, four times ten. 

28. -ward = towards, east-ward, towards the east. 

29. -"wise = manner, like-wise, in like manner. 

30. -en. Forms verbs from adjectives, weak, weaken. 

Plural nouns, ox-en, childr-en. 

Words distinguished as Saxon by their Use and 
Meaning. 

(a) Most of the words which we early learn to use, and 
which are most closely associated with the pleasant 
memories of childhood and home. Such words have 
more power over us than have the high-sounding words 
which we learn later in life. Perhaps this is the reason 
why we find a simple Saxon style so pleasing. 



46 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Among the classes of Saxon words which we learn 
in childhood are the following : — 

1. Names of our earliest and dearest associations. 

Ex. home, friends, father, mother, husband, wife, 
son, daughter, brother, sistST, fireside, hearth. 

2. Words expressing our strongest natural feelings. 

Ex. gladness (not joy) , sorrow (not grief) , tears, 
smiles, blushes, laughing, weeping, sighing, groaning, 
love, hate (not anger), fear, pride, mirth. 

So also hungry, thirsty, tired, sleepy, lonesome, 
homesick, naughty. 

3. Names of common things, such as a child early notices 

and learns to talk about. 

Ex. sun, moon, star, sky, cloud, earth, water. 

Animals : horse, cow, dog, cat, calf, pig {beef, veal, 
and pork are Norman terms) . 

Objects in the plant world : tree, bush, grass (not 
flower or vine) . 

Objects in the mineral world : sand, salt, iron, gold, 
stone (not rock) . 

Features of scenery : hill, woods, stream, land, sea 
(not mountain or valley) . 

Natural divisions of time, etc. : day, night, morn- 
ing, evening, noon, midnight, sunset, sunrise, twilight, 
light, darkness. 

Kinds of weather, etc. : cold, heat, wet, dry, wind, 
frost, hail, rain, sleet, snow, thunder, lightning, storm. 

Parts of the body: hand, arm, head, leg, eye, ear, 
foot, nose (not face). 

(b) Most of our particular terms. The general terms are 
mainly from the Latin, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing examples : — 



THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 47 

Latin. Saxon. 

motion. slide, creep, walk, fly, swim, etc. 

color. white, blue, red, green, yellow, etc. 

sound. buzz, speak, whistle, roar, etc. 

animal. dog, man, sheep, wolf, etc. 

, j all the cardinal numbers to a million. 
( all the ordinal numbers except second. 

This explains why the Saxon style is more vivid and pic- 
turesque, and therefore more pleasing than a style which 
abounds in words of classic origin. 

(c) Most of the words used in the common affairs of every- 

day life. The words which we hear in the home, on 
the street, in the shops and markets, and on the farm 
are, to a great extent, Saxon words. 

Ex. sell, buy, cheap, dear, high, low, weight (not 
measure), work, grind, reap, sow, baker, shoemaker, 
worth, want, wedge, spring, scrape, sweep, wash, rich, 
poor, business, wages (not salary). 

Caution : Notice that many such words are not of 
Saxon origin. For example, money. In all doubtful 
cases consult the dictionary. 

(d) Many colloquialisms ; that is, words which are used in 

familiar conversation, but not often in careful writing. 
An excited talker does not stop to choose the most 
elegant word. When a man is angry, he " talks plain 
English," and uses such words as lazy, shiftless, sly, 
gawky, shabby, trash, sham. 

(e) Most words in our proverbs and maxims. 

These " old sayings," or " household words," as they 
are sometimes called, owe much of their force to their 
simple Saxon style. 

Ex. " Make hay while the sun shines." " A bird in 
the hand is worth two in the bush." " No pains, no 
gains." " Look before you leap." 



48 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXEEOISE I. 

1. Make adjectives from the following nouns, by using suf- 
fixes meaning like, having the quality of, or relating 
to: man, storm, fear, snow, east, noise. 

2 What is the difference in meaning between earthly and 
earthen? Between childish and childlike? Between 
sixteen and sixtj 7 ? 

3. Show the force of the prefixes in the following words : 

for-bid, under-go, with-stand, out-law, fore-tell, mis- 
take, over-do, un-truth, a-board, to-day, n-either. 

4. Show the force of the suffixes in the following words : 

west-ward, lad-die, free-dom, fir-kin, ox-en, fear-less, 
wait-er, good-ness, kin-ship. 







EXEEOISE II. 


- 


Tell how you know that each of the following words 


Saxon : — 










sheep 


liar 


old 


gosling 


smile 


home 


handsome 


mouse 


sight 


gawky 


white 


likewise 


deaf 


skull 


darling 


roar 


somewhat 


yearn 


first 


business 


walk 


boyish 


truth 


bread 


buy 


sleepy 


shine 


lazy 


naughty 


godlike 


stream 


grass 


wooden 


salt 


manhood 


head 


mirth 


cheerful 


twilight 


hopeless 


children 


shall 


sweetness 


rain 


strengthen 


kingdom 


ought 


friendship 


sing 


shipwreck 






EXEEOISE III. 





Which of the words in the following extracts are not of 
Saxon origin? Give rules for the Saxon words. 

1. For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd, 



THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 49 

And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, 
And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever grew still. 
And there lay the steed with his nostrils all wide, 
But thro' them there rolled not the breath of his pride ; 
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, 
And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf. Byron. 

2. A little flower so lowly grew, 
So lonety was it left, 
That heaven looked like an eye of blue, 
Down in its rocky cleft. 

What could the little flower do, 
In such a darksome place, 
But try to reach that eye of blue 
And climb to kiss heaven's face ? 

And there's no life so lone and low 

But strength may still be given, 

From narrowest lot on earth to grow 

The straighter up to heaven. Gerald Massey. 

EXEEOISE IV. 
Write a paragraph of ten lines, composed largely of Saxon 
words, selecting one of the following subjects : — 

How We Learn to Talk. My Little Brother. 

What the Wind Sang. Boys. 

The Sad Story of a Shipwreck. 

The following story, written by a pupil, is composed almost 
entirely of Saxon words : — 

Bertie and the Butterflies. 

Once upon a time there lived a little five-year-old boy 
named Bertie. On a nice afternoon in June he lay on his 
back in some tall grass that grew in the back-yard, with his 



50 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

hands behind nis back, and his eyes fixed on the blue sky 
above him. 

He was very drowsy and just about to go to sleep, when 
a little voice that sounded very indistinct said, "Bertie, 
Bertie ! " At first he would not look around, for he thought 
it was only his imagination ; but when the voice called again, 
he turned his head and beheld the funniest sight you ever 
thought of. Right beside him was a whole mass of butter- 
flies, poised in the air, with the most showy wings Bertie 
had ever seen. But this was not the queerest part ; for 
these butterflies, instead of having little black bodies like 
all their kindred, were tiny little fays dressed in tight suits 
of black spotted with yellow. And what was queerer still, 
they had little black horns like a common butterfly's. And 
they were staring at Bertie in the wisest way, with their 
little black eyes blinking and winking at him as if they knew 
more about him than he did himself. 

They looked so funny that Bertie laughed aloud and 
clapped his dimpled hands so hard that the butterflies all 
gave a little flap of their wings and looked so very much 
frightened that Bertie stopped laughing. 

Then there came a voice out of the mass of butterflies that 
said, " Bertie, Bertie, you must not do that, or we shall fly 
awa}\" Bertie turned his face awa} r from them, and look- 
ing up at the sky, watched the clouds. But pretty soon he 
got tired of this and thought he must look again at the fays, 
whether it made him laugh or not ; and so he did : but they 
all looked so solemn that he exclaimed, " My doodness ! 
why don't 'oo say somefin' ? " And this time they all flew 
away, leaving Bertie staring at the place where they had 
been ; he had to rub his eyes to be sure they had gone, 
because they went away so quickly. But when he told his 
mother, she said she guessed he had been asleep, and that 
was why he rubbed his eyes. 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 61 



CHAPTER III. 

THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 
LATIN PREFIXES. 

1. a-, ab-, abs-, = from or away. 

ab-solve, to set free from. a-vert, to turn from. 

ab-duct, to lead away, abs-tract, to draw from. 



2. ad- = to. 

Variations : a-, ac-, af-, ag-, al-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, at-, the 
last letter being usually changed into the first letter of the 
word to which it is prefixed. This change is for the sake 
of euphony. 

ad-apt, to fit to. al-lude, to refer to. 

a-gree, to be pleasing to. an-nex, to tie to. 

ac-cede, to yield to. ap-pend, to hang to. 

af-fix, to fix to. ar-rive, to come to. 

ag-grieve, to give pain to. as-sist, to give help to. 

at-tract, to draw to. 



3. con- = with or together. 

Variations : co-, cog-, col-, com-, cor-, 
con-nect, to fasten together. col-lapse, to fall together. 
co-here, to stick together. com-merce, to trade with others, 

cog-nate, born together. cor-relative, relative with. 



4. dis- = asunder, apart, opposite of. 

Variations : di-, dif-. 
dis-pel, to drive asunder. di-vert, to turn apart. 

dis-please, opposite of please, dif-fer, to be apart. 

5. se- = apart. se-cede, to go apart. 



52 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

6. in- = in, into, or on. (In nouns and verbs.) 

Variations : il-, im-, ir-. 
in-clude, to shut in. im-bibe, to drink in. 

il-luminate, to throw light on. ir-rigate, to pour water on. 
im-migrate, to move into a country. 

7. intra- = within. intra-tropical, within the tropics. 

8. intro- = within or into. intro-spection, a looking within. 

intro-duce, to lead into. 



9. ex- = out or from. 

Variations : e-, ec-, ef-. 
ex-clude, to shut out. ec-centric, from the centre, 

e-vade, to get away /row. ef-flux, a flowing out 



10. contra- = against. 

Variations : contro-, counter-, 
contra-diet, to speak against, contro-vert, to turn against. 
counter-act, to act against. 

11. ob- = against or out. 

Variations : o-, oc-, of-, op-, 
ob-ject, to throw against. oc-cur, to run against. 

o-mit, to leave out. of -fend, to strike against. 

op-pose, to act against. 



12. non- = not. non-essential, not essential. 

13. in- = not. (In adjectives and nouns.) 

Variations : ig-, il-, im-, ir-. 
in-active, not active. il-legal, not legal, 

ig-noble, not noble. im-mortal, not mortal, 

ir-regular, not regular. 



14. sub- = under or after. 

Variations : sue-, suf-, sug-, sum-, sup-, sus-. 
sub-scribe, to write under. suc-ceed, to follow after. 

sub-sequent, following after, suf-fix, something fixed after. 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 



53 



sug-gest, to bring to mind sum-mon, to hint from under. 
from under. sup-press, to press under. 

sus-tain, to hold from under. 



15. subter- = under. 

16. post- = after. 

17. ante- = before. 

18. pre- = before. 



subter-fuge, a flying under. 
post-mortem, after death. 



ante-cedent, going before. 
pre-fix, to fix before. 



19. pro- = for or forward. 



pro-noun, for a noun, 
pro-gress, to move forward. 



20. re- 

21. retro- 



back or anew. re-pel, to drive back, 

backward. retro-spect, a looking backward. 



22. extra- = beyond. extra-ordinary, beyond ordinary. 

23. preter- = beyond. preter-natural, beyond nature. 

24. trans- = beyond or through, trans-atlantic, beyond the 

Atlantic, 
trans-fix, to pierce through. 

25. ultra- = beyond or extremely, ultra-marine, beyond the sea. 

ultra-liberal, extremely liberal. 



26. per- 



ihrough. 



per-spire, to breathe through. 



27. bi- = two. ./; 

28. circum- = around. 

29. inter- = between. 

30. juxta- = near. 

31. sine- = without. 

32. super- = over. 

33. de- = down or off. 



bi-ped, /wo-footed. 

circum-navigate, to sail around. 

inter-cede, to go between. 

juxta-position, a placing near. 

sine-cure, without care. 

super-intend, to have care over. 

de-pose, to put down. 
de-fer, to put off. 



54 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



1. 


-an. 


2. 


-ant. 


3. 


-ent. 


4. 


-ary. 


5. 


-ate. 


6. 


-eer. 


7. 


-ier. 


8. 


-ist. 


9. 


-or. 


10. 


-ice. 


11. 


-ment. 


12. 


-mony. 


13. 


-ure. 



LATIN SUFFIXES. 

Suffixes = one who (agent) ; that which. 

artis-an, one who works at a trade. 

assist-ant, one who assists. 

stud-ent, one who studies. 

lapid-ary one who cuts precious stones. 

advoc-ate one who pleads a cause. 

auction-eer, one who holds an auction. 

cash-ier, one icho has charge of the cash. 

botan-ist, one who studies botany. [Orig. Greek.] 

act-or, one who acts. 

serv-ice, that which serves. 

induce-ment, that which leads. 

testi-mony, that which is testified. 

creat-ure, that which is created. 

Noun Suffixes = one who is (recipient) ; that which is. 

14. -ate. deleg-ate, one who is sent by others. 

15. -ite. favor-ite, one who is favored. 

16. -ee. trust-ee, one who is trusted. 

17. -ive. capt-ive, one who is taken. 

Noun Suffixes — state ; condition ; quality ; act. 

18. -ance. abund-ance, condition of abounding. 

19. -ence. prud-ence, quality of being prudent. 

20. -ancy. brilli-ancy, quality of brightness. 

21. -ency. despond-ency, state of being despondent. 

22. -age. marri-age, act of marrying. 

23. -acy. accur-acy, quality of being accurate. 

24. -ity. secur-ity, state of being secure. 

25. -ty. liber-ty, state of being free. 

26. -ion. evas-ion, act of evading. 

27. -ism. hero-ism, state of being a hero. [Originally Greek.] 

28. -ment. excite-ment, state of being excited. 

29. -mony. matri-mony, state of marriage. 

30. -tude. servi-tude, condition of slaving. 

31. -ure. depart-ure, act of leaving. 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 55 

Noun Suffixes —place where. 

32. -ary. gran-ary, a place where grain is kept. 

33. -ory. fact-ory, & place where things are made. 

34. -ery. cemet-ery, a place where the dead sleep. 

Noun Suffixes — minute (diminutives). 

35. -cle. parti-cle, a minute part. 

36. -cule. animal-cule, a minute animal. 

37. -ule. spher-ule, a minute sphere. 

Adjective Suffixes == like ; being; relating to. 

cardi-ac, relating to the heart, 
leg-al, relating to the law. 
hum-an, relating to mankind, 
circul-ar, like a circle, 
milit-ary, relating to the army, 
equival-ent, being equal, 
heroic, like a hero, 
histor-ical, relating to history, 
puer-ile, like a boy. 
luc-id, being clear, 
femin-ine, relating to a woman, 
preparat-ory, relating to preparation. 

Adjective Suffixes = a bounding in; having the quality of. 

passion-ate, having the quality of passion, 
verb-ose, abounding in words, 
populous, abounding in people, 
op-ulent, abounding in wealth, 
sapon-aceous, having the qualities of soap, 
ver-acious, having the qualities of truth. 

Adjective Suffixes = that may be. 

19. -able. mov-able, that may be moved. 

20. -ible. leg-ible, that may be read. 

21. -ble. solu-ble, that may be dissolved,, 

22. -ile. doc-ile, that may be taught. 



1. 


-ac. 


2. 


-al. 


3. 


-an. 


4. 


-ar. 


5. 


-ary. 


6. 


-ent. 


7. 


-ic. 


8. 


-ical. 


9. 


-ile. 


10. 


-id. 


11. 


-ine. 


12. 


-ory. 


dj* 

13. 


active Si 

-ate. 


14. 


-ose. 


15. 


-ous. 


16. 


-ulent. 


17. 


-aceous. 


18. 


-acious. 



56 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Adjective Suffixes = having the power of. 

23. -ive. negat-ive, having the power of denying. 

Adjective Suffixes = causing or producing. 

24. -ferous. coni-ferous, producing cones. 

25. -fie. sopori-fic, causing sleep. 

Adjective Suffixes = becoming. ' 

26. -escent. conval-escent, becoming well. 

Verb Suffixes = to make ; to render ; to perform an act. 

1. -ate. navig-ate, to perform the act of sailing. 

2. -fy. forti-fy, to make strong. 

3. -ise. critic-ise, to perform the work of a critic. > From the 

4. -ize. fertil-ize, to render fertile. > Greek. 

EXERCISE ON THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 

1. From the following words, make nouns denoting state, 

condition, quality, or act, giving the definition of 
each, 
parent, private, despot, judge, moist, repent, prompt (i), 
docile. 

2. From the following words make nouns denoting place 

where. Define each, 
arm, bird (avis), bee (apis), observe, penitent. 

3. Write the diminutives of the following words. Define 

each, 
globe, skin (cutis), root (radix), work-bag (rete, a net), 
mass (moles). 

4. From the following words make nouns denoting the 

agent (one ivho or that which). Define each, 
brigade, music, credit, flower (flor-), account, command, 
mission. 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 57 

5. From the following words make adjectives denoting 

relating to, like or being. Define each, 
nation, elegy, moment, poet, water (aqua), splendor, 
dog (canis), infant, promise, sun (sol), Rome. 

6. From the following words make adjectives denoting 

abounding in, or having the quality of. Define each, 
affection, courage, suspicion, fraud, malice, leaf 
(folium). 

7. Define the following words so as to show the force of 

the prefixes and suffixes, 
intangible, impalpable, illegible, feasible, inaudible, visi- 
ble, laudable, inexplicable, perceptible, inaccessible 9 
irrevocable, unpardonable. 

8. From the following words make verbs denoting to make, 

render, or perform the act of. Define each, 
solid, number, agony, terror, memory. 

9. Define the following words so as to show the force of 

the prefixes and suffixes, 
recapitulate, incarcerate, refrigerate, circumscribe, coin- 
cidence, insanity, education (e-duc-ate-ion) , trans- 
portation. 

10. Show, from the etymology, the difference in meaning 
between emigrate and immigrate ; exclude, include, 
conclude ; repel, expel, impel, dispel ; secede, inter- 
. cede, recede, precede ; attract, distract, subtract, ex- 
tract, retract, protract, detract; ante-meridian, post- 
meridian ; contradict, interdict, predict, predicate. 



58 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

EXEEOISE. 

Words Derived from Latin Numerals. 

Define each word, so as to show that it contains the idea 
of the number. 

1, unus. unit, union, unite, uniform, universe, uni- 

corn, unique, university, Unitarian. 

2, duo. dual, duel, duplex, duplicate, duplicity. 
bis, hi(twice). billion, bisect, bivalve, biscuit, binomial, 

biennial, bigamist, bi-dentate. 

3, tres. treble, trefoil. 

tri (thrice), triangle, tribe, trice, triple, tri-color, trident, 
trinity, trinomial, triplet, trio, trisect, 
tripod, triennial. 

4, quatuor. quarto, quart, quartette, quadrille, quad- 

ruped, quadrilateral, quadrillion, quad- 
ruple, quarter. 

5, quinque quintette, quintillion, quintuple, quinque- 

reme, quinque-foliate, quintessence. 

6, sex. sextant, sextillion, sextuple, sexennial. 

7, septem* septennial, septillion, septisyllable, Septem- 

ber. 

8, octcx octave, octillion, octennial, October. 

9, novem. novennial, November. 

10, • decern. decennial, decimeter, decimal, decimate, De- 

cember. 
12, duodecimo, duodecimal, duodecimo (volume). 
100, centum. cent, century, centurion, centigram, centen- 

nial, centenarian, centigrade, centiped, 
percentage. 
1000, mille. million, millennium, millimeter, milleped. 

First, primus. prime, primary, primal, primeval, primer, 

primitive. 
Second, secundus. second, secondary. 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 59 

EXEEOISE. 
English Words Derived from Latin Roots. 
Explain the etymology of each. 

1. caput-, the head. 

cap, cape (geography), capital, captain, chapter, chaplet, 
chieftain, decapitate, precipitate. 

2. claudo, clausum-, to shut, to close, finish. 

clause, close, closet, disclose, include, exclude, seclusion, 
cloister, recluse. 

3. duco, ductum-, to lead, to draw. 

aqueduct, ductile, conduce, induce, conduit, educate. 

4. fero, latum-, to bear, to carry, to bring. 

collate, confer, differ, ferry, fertile, oblation, refer, relate, 
superlative, transfer, legislator. 

5. gradus-, a step. 

gradior, gressus-, to step, to go. 

grade, gradual, graduate, congress, degrade, degree, digress, 
ingredient, transgress. 

6. mitto, missum-, to send. 

admit, committee, dismiss, intermit, mission, remittance, 
promise, message f 

7. pes, pedis-, foot. 

biped, pedal, expedite, impediment, centiped. 

8. plico-, to bend, to fold, to knit. 

plecto, plexum-, to twine, to weave, to knit. 

apply, duplicate, complex, explicit, implicit, pliant, reply, 
supplicate, triple. 

9. pono, positum-, to put, to place, to lay. 

post, postage, repose, depose, impose, composure, deposit, 
expose, position. 

10. speciOj spectum-, to see, to look. 

despise, circumspect, respite, special, suspicion, spectacle, 
spectre, species, specimen. 



60 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



PRINCIPAL GREEK PREFIXES. 



1. 


a-, an- 


2. 


amphi- 


3. 


ana- 


4. 


anti-, ant- 


5. 


cata-, cat- 


6. 


dia- 


7. 


dis-, di- 


8. 


dys- 


9. 


ec- 


10. 


en-, em- 


11. 


epi-, ep- 


12. 


eu-, ev- 


13. 


hemi- 


14 


hyper-, 


15. 


hypo- 


16. 


meta-, met- 


17. 


para-, par- 


18. 


peri- 


19. 


pro- 


20. 


syn-, sy-, 




syl-, sym- 



without; not. 

around; both. 

back; throughout 
against; opposite 
down ; against, 
through; across, 
two ; double* 
ill. 

out of. 
in ; on. 
upon ; for. 
well; good, 
half. 

over; beyond. 

under. 

beyond ; transference. 

by the side of 

around. 

before. 

[■ with ; together. •] 



a-pathy, an-omalous. 

amphi-theater, 

amphi-bious. 

ana-logy, ana-lysis. 

anti-pathy, ant-arctic. 

cata-logue, cat-arrh. 

dia-meter, dia-logue. 

dis-syllable, di-lemma. 

dys-pepsia. 

ec-lectic. 

en-ergy, em-phasis. 

epi-dermis, ep-hemeraL 

eu-phonic, ev-angeL 

hemi-sphere. 

hyper-critical, 

hyper-borean. 

hypo-thesis. 

meta-physics, met-onymy. 

para-site, par-helion. 

peri-meter. 

pro-gramme. 

syn-thesis, sy-stem. 

syl-lable, sym-pathy. 



EXEECISR' 

Words Derived from Greek Words of Number. 

Define each word so as to show that it contains the idea of 
the number. 

1, mono (single), monosyllable, monologue, monotony, mon- 

archy, monogram, monolith, monomial, monopoly, mono- 
petalous. 

2, deuteros (second). Deuteronomy. 

dis, di (twice), dissyllable, diarchy, dilemma, diphthong, 
diploma. 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 61 

3, tris (thrice), tripod, trialogue, triarchy, trigonometry, tri< 
glyph, trisyllable. 

5, pente. pentagon, pentateuch, pentecost, pentameter. 

6, hex. hexagon, hexameter. 

7, hepta. heptagon, heptarchy. 

8, octo. octagon. 

10, deka. decagon, decagram, decalogue. 

12, dodeka. dodecagon. 

100, hekaton. hectometer, hektograph. 
10000, myria. myriad, myriameter. 

poly (many), polygon, polysyllable, polygamy, polyglot, 
Polynesia, polyp, polynomial. 

EXEE0ISE. 
English Words Derived from Greek Roots. 
Explain the etymology of each word. 

1. aster-, astron-, a star. 

astronomy, asterisk, astrology. 

2. chronos-. time. 

chronic, chronology, chronicle, anachronism, chronometer. 

3. ge-, the earth. 

geology, geography, geometry. 

4. gramma-, a letter. 

grammar, grammatical, anagram, diagram, epigram, mono 
gram, telegram, programme. 

5. graph ein-, to write. 

graphic, autograph, biography, photograph, caligraph, geog- 
raphy, lithograph, orthography, phonograph, stenograph, 
telegraph, topography. 

6. hudor-, water. 

hydra, hydrant, hydraulic, hydrogen, hydropathy, hydro- 
phobia, hydrostatics. 



62 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



LiT 



7. logos-, speech^ description, reason, science. 

logic, analogy, catalogue, doxblogy, etymology, mythology, 
mineralogy. 

8. metron-, a measure. 

meter, barometer, thermometer, perimeter, symmetry. 
\9. phone-, a sound. 

euphony, phonograph, telephone, phonic, symphony. 
10. polls-, a city. * 

police, policy, politics, metropolis, necropolis, cosmopolitan, 

Constantinople. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXEEOISES 

"ON THE SAXON AND CLASSICAL ELEMENTS. 

Exercise I. 
Give Saxon equivalents for the following classical terms : — 



cohere 
exclude 
object 
^object (verb) 
language 
puerile 
verbosity 
extravagant 
stupendous 
magnitude 
expansive 
hilarious 
eternal 



multitude 
^excite 
constellation 
promote 
nocturnal 
diurnal 
elevate 
aqueous 
saccharine 
lacteal 
saline 

carnivorous 
luminary 



veracity 

precipitate 

fraternal 

sustain 

preservation 

spectacle 

dominate 

contention 

inexpensive 

diminutive 

assassinate 

invisible 



injure 
^ crystalline 

indicate 

creation 
: endeavor 

fortitude 
y sanctuary 

omnipotent 
m diffuse 
- — mysterious 

confidence 

beneficent 



Exercise II. 
From the following extracts, select all the words of classi- 
cal origin. Re- write each paragraph so as to express the 
same thought, but mainly in Saxon words. 
1./ Let it be proclaimed in every school that there are 
' original, immutable, and indestructible maxims of moral 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 63 

rectitude, — great lights in the firmament of the soul, — 
which no circumstances can affect, no sophistry obliterate. 
That to this eternal standard every individual of the race 
is bound to conform, and that by it the conduct of every 
man shall be adjudged. Let it be proclaimed that dis- 
honesty, fraud, and falsehood are as despicable and crim- 
inal in the most exalted stations as in the most obscure, 
in politics as in business. Bateman. 

2. I have spoken heretofore with some levity of the con- 
trast that exists between the English and French char- 
acter ; but it deserves more serious consideration. They 
are the two great nations of modern times most diametri- 
cally opposed, and most worthy of each other's rivalry ; 
essentially distinct in their characters, excelling in oppo- 
site qualities, and reflecting lustre on each other by their 
very opposition. In nothing is this contrast more strik- 
ingly evinced than in their military conduct. Irving. 

Exercise III. 

1. Write in classical style one of the old nursery rhymes, 
such as " Jack and Gill," " Old Mother Hubbard," " Little 
Drops of Water," or " Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star." 

2. Reproduce in this way any short anecdote. 

The following classical versions, written by pupils, will 
suggest how the simple story may be clothed in a foreign 
dress : — 

Saxon. — There was a little girl, 

And she had a little curl 

That hung right down on her forehead ; 

And when she was good 

She was very, very good ; 

But when she was bad, she was horrid. 



64 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Classical. — At a recent period in che annals of the human 
family, there existed a diminutive feminine specimen of hu- 
manity, whose most conspicuous personal decoration was a 
capillary spiral appendage of minute dimensions. This de- 
scended perpendicularly upon her alabaster brow. 

At intervals when she was amiably disposed, she produced 
upon all beholders the impression of being excessively agree- 
able ; but when she abandoned herself to the natural inclina- 
tions of an unregenerate spirit, she exhibited such symptoms 
of depravity that her deportment became positively execrable. 

Saxon. — A little boy once said to his mother, " Ma, if a 
bear should eat me up, where would my soul go? " 

She replied, " Your soul would go to Heaven, my son." 
He thought a minute, and then suddenly broke out, " If the 
bear should take to runnin', I'd have a good ride anyhow." 

Classical. — A diminutive specimen of the human race 
propounded the following query to his maternal ancestor : 
"Mamma, if a carnivorous individual should devour me, 
whither would that ethereal portion of my human organiza- 
tion rejoicing in the euphonious appellation soul depart?" 

Mamma replied to her lineal descendant: u It would soar 
to the celestial regions." 

The youth cogitated for several consecutive moments, and 
then ejaculated, "If the animal should be seized with an 
unaccountable tendency to propel himself to a destination 
far remote, I should experience the delicious sensation of 
obtaining a glorious journey without being obliged to employ 
my powers of locomotion." 



THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT. 66 

Exercise IV. 

The following sonnet, made up of words of one S} T llable, 
proves that long words are not always necessary to strength 
of style. 

Select the words which are not of Saxon origin. 

Think not that strength lies in the big round word, 

Or that the brief and plain must needs be weak. 

To whom can this be true who once has heard 

The cry for help, the tongue that all men speak, 

When want, or fear, or woe, is in the throat, 

So that each word gasped out is like a shriek 

Pressed from the sore heart, or a strange, wild note 

Sung by some fay or fiend ! There is a strength 

Which dies if stretched too far, or spun too fine ; 

Which has more height than breadth, more depth than length 

Let but this force of thought and speech be mine, 

And he that will may take the sleek, fat phrase, 

Which glows but burns not, though it beam and shine ; 

Light, but no heat, — a flash, but not a blaze. Alexander. 



REFERENCES. 

CHAPS. II. AND III. 

History of the English Language. Lounsbury. 
Hand Book of the English Tongue. Angus. 
English Dictionary. Unabridged. Stormonth. 
The Imperial Dictionary. 

Etymological Dictionary. [2d Edition.] Skeat. 
Short Stories from the Dictionary. Gilman. 
Affixes to English Words. Haldeman. 
Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language. March. 
Grammar of Old English. Sievers-Cook. 



66 LESSONS IK ENGLISH. 



CHAPTER IV. 

FIGURES. 
\ 

Figures of Speech are variations of the literal in- 
ordinary forms of expression, the intention being to 
make the thought more attractive or more striking. 

Examples. 

Literal. Figurative. 

1. Misfortunes never come 1. When sorrows come, 

singly. They come not single spies, 

But in battalions. 

Shakespeare . 

2. Time seems short when we 2. How noiseless falls the foot 

are happy. of Time 

That only treads on flowers ! 
W. R. Spencer. 

3. Why cannot I go to sleep? 3. O, gentle sleep, 

Nature's soft nurse, how have 
I frighted thee ? 

Shakespeare. 

4. The king lay wounded and 4. So, like a shattered column, 

helpless. lay the king. Tennyson 

Figures of Speech are of many- different kinds. Thp 
principal Figures will be considered in order. 

I. SIMILE. 

Simile is an expression of resemblance between two 
different things. It is usually introduced by such words 
as like and as. 



FIGURES. 67 

Not all expressed comparisons are Similes. The tiger 
is as brave as the lion is not a Simile, because the things 
compared have too many points of resemblance. The 
best Similes are such as compare things which are in 
most respects unlike; but which have at least one 
strong point of resemblance in appearance or qualities 
or actions or in the effects which they produce. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) What things are compared? 

(6) Where does the resemblance lie? 

(c) How is the comparison expressed? 

1 . How far that little candle throws its beams ! 

So shines a good deed in a naughty world. Shakespeare. 

2. As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the 

Lord is round about his people, from henceforth even 
forever. Psalms cxxiv. 2. 

3. The wild geese fly, 

Storm-sent, from Arctic moors and fells, 

Like a great arrow through the sky. Whittier. 

4. Religion is to the soul what light is to nature. 

5. The covetous man pines in plenty, like Tantalus, up to 

the chin in water and yet thirsty. Adams. 

6. It is with words as with sunbeams — the more they are 

condensed, the deeper they burn. Southey. 

7. Her hair drooped round her pallid cheek 

Like sea-weed on a clam. Holmes. 

8. To be mixed in parish stirs 

Is worse thau handling chestnut-burrs. Saxe. 



68 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

9. The hooded clouds, like friars, 

Tell their beads in drops of rain. Longfellow. 

10. Human life may be compared to a river, flowing ever 
towards the sea of Eternity. 

II. METAPHOR. 

Metaphor is another figure which is founded upon 
the resemblance of one thing to another. It differs 
from Simile in that the comparison is implied instead 
of being formally expressed. In Metaphor we speak of 
one thing in such language as suggests a picture of 
something else. As in Simile, the things compared 
should not be alike in too many particulars. There is 
no Metaphor in saying, That man is a hero. 

The following examples illustrate the difference be- 
tween Simile and Metaphor : — 

Simile. Metaphor. 

1. Life is like an isthmus be- 1. Life is an isthmus between 

tween two eternities. two eternities. 

2. Habit may be likened to a 2. Habit is a cable; every day 

cable ; every day we weave we weave a thread, and 

a thread, and soon we can- soon we cannot break it. 

not break it. 

3. Happiness is like sunshine ; 3. The sunshine of life is made 

it is made up of very little up of very little beams, 

beams. 

EXEKCISR 

(a) What things are compared? 

(b) Show wherein lies the resemblance. 

(c) Change to form of Simile. 



FIGURES. 69 

1 . Kindness is the golden chain by which society is bound 

together. Goethe. 

2. This [snow] is the poem of the air, 

Slowly in silent syllables recorded. Longfellovj. 

3. By the street called By-and-by you reach a house 

called Never. 

4. What is pride? 

A whizzing rocket 

That would emulate a star. -Words-worth. 

5. We cannot all be cabin passengers in the voyage of life. 
Some must be before the mast. 

6. Aloft on sky and mountain wall 

Are God's great pictures hung. Whittier. 

7. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the 

angels. Longfellow. 

8. In the bright lexicon of youth 

There's no such word as fail. Bidiver. 

9. A certain amount of opposition is a great help to a man. 
Kites rise against and not with the wind. 

10. Spare moments are the gold-dust of time. 



III. ALLEGORY. 

Allegory is also founded upon resemblance ; but the 
comparison is more extended than in Simile and Meta- 
phor. An Allegory is a fictitious story designed to 
teach some abstract truth by the use of symbolic lan- 
guage. Short Allegories are called Fables or Parables. 



70 Lessons in English. 

The difference between Simile, Metaphor, and Alle- 
gory may be illustrated by these three ways of repre- 
senting life as a day's journey : — 

Simile. — Life may be compared to a day's journey from 
our Father's house "into a far country" and home again. 

Metaphor. — From the cradle to the grave is but a day's 
journey. 

Allegory. — One bright morning a child left his father's 
house and wandered out into the wide world. Birds sang in 
the tree-tops and gay butterflies fluttered among the flowers 
which grew on every side. The child ran here and there, 
chasing the butterflies. He gathered the flowers until his 
hands could hold no more. So the morning wore on. 

As the sun rose higher, the birds ceased their songs. Noon 
found the child hot and weary with chasing butterflies. The 
flowers in his hands drooped and faded. The way became 
rougher and steeper as he went on, and often he stumbled 
over the stones in his path. 

After a time he noticed that many of the stones around 
him contained gleams of gold and veins of silver, and some- 
times a sparkling gem firmly imbedded in the coarse rock. 

u I will gather these beautiful stones," said he, " for they 
will not fade as did the flowers." 

But the jewels were fast in the rocks, and, with all his 
strength, he could not loosen them. Tears came to the 
child's eyes when he found that all these precious things must 
be left behind, because he was not strong enough to carry 
the stones in which they were fixed. Presently he grew 
braver, and said to himself, " Perhaps among the little stones 
I may find some jewels." So, as the afternoon wore away, 
he filled his handkerchief with shining pebbles, and carried 
the precious bundle on his back, while with his one free 



FIGURES. 71 

hand he grasped every little stone that glistened in his 
path. 

As the shadows grew longer, his strength began to fail. 
His feet were bleeding from contact with the sharp rocks, 
and the burden on his back seemed crushing him to the 
earth. Stopping occasionally to rest, he examined the peb- 
bles which he had collected and found that most of them were 
worthless ; so, a few at a time, he threw them all away. 

As the dew began to fall, he sighed, " I am so tired ! How 
pleasant it must be now at home ; and how far away I have 
wandered ! I must hasten back before night comes." 

The stars came out to light him on his way, and, empty- 
handed, he went home, to find rest and shelter in his father's 
house. 

EXEEOISE. 

1. What do you understand by the expression, "his fath- 

er's house " ? 

2. What period of life is meant by the morning? 

3. What are represented by the birds and butterflies? 

4. What by the flowers? 

5. Give a literal expression for "As the sun rose higher." 

6. What is pictured by the fading flowers? 

7. Explain what is meant bj- u stones in the path." 

8. Why is it proper to speak of the way as growing 

steeper ? 

9. What is meant by noon? 

10. What do you understand by the gold and jewels among 

the rocks? 

11. What experience of human life is expressed in the sen- 

tence beginning, " Tears came to the child's eyes"? 

12. What are meant by the pebbles? 



72 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

13. Explain the expression, " As the shadows grew longer." 

14. What was the burden which he carried? 

15. What is meant by his throwing away the pebbles? 

16. What is meant by the falling of the dew? 

17. Express in literal language the quotation beginning, " I 

am so tired." 

18. What is meant by the stars coming out to light him? 

19. What is the special significance of the expression fct emp- 

ty-handed " ? 

20. Tell the story in literal language. 

Examples of Allegory. 

The Parables of the Bible. JEsop's Fables. 
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Mirza's Vision. 
The Mountain and the Squirrel. Emerson. 
Little Daffy do wndilly. Hawthorne. 

IV. PERSONIFICATION". 

Personification consists in attributing life to inani- 
mate things. 

There are three chief kinds of Personification : — 

First. That produced by the use of adjectives. In this 
form of Personification, the qualities of living beings 
are attributed to inanimate things. 

Ex. The hungry flames. The whistling wind. A treach- 
erous calm. 

This form of Personification is much like Metaphor, 
and is sometimes so called. 



FIGURES. 73 

Second. That produced by the use of verbs. Here inani- 
mate things are represented as performing the actions 
of living beings. 

Ex. The winds hoivled. " Our bugles sang truce." " Hope 
enchanted smiled." 

Third. This is the highest form of Personification. In 
this, inanimate things are directly addressed, as if 
they could answer. It is a combination of Personifi- 
cation with another figure, Apostrophe. 

Ex. " Violet, sweet violet ! 

Thine eyes are full of tears." 

Personification and Metaphor are often combined. 

A peculiar form of Personification is common in 
fables, where animals and plants are represented as 
thinking and talking like men. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Where is Personification suggested? 
(6) What form of the figure is used? 

1. Kind Fancy plays the fair}' god-mother. Lowell. 

2. Scowling turrets and frowning battlements. 

3. The years between 

Have taught some sweet, some bitter lessons. Loivell. 

4. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, 

And Melancholy marked him for her own. Gray. 

5. Creaking with laughter swings the old barn door 
At little winking seeds upon the floor, 

Dropped from four hungry barrels in a row. Cordner. 

6. Procrastination is the thief of time. Young. 

7. Angel of Peace, thou hast wandered too long. Holmes. 



74 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Joy and Temperance and Repose 

Slam the door on the doctor's nose. Longfellow. 

(Translation.) 

9. O Nature, how fair is thy face 

And how light is thy heart ! Owen Meredith. 

10. All day the sea-waves sobbed with sorrow. Whittier. 

V. ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis is a figure founded upon unlikeness. 
Things are contrasted or opposed to each other. 

The best examples of Antithesis are those in which 
the contrast is the most forcible. Contrast verbs with 
verbs, adjectives with adjectives, nouns with nouns, etc. 

Ex. " Deeds show what we are ; words, what we should be." 

Often there is a double or even a triple contrast in 
the same sentence. 

Ex. " Silence is deep as Eternity; speech is shallow as 
Time." 

Here silence and speech are contrasted ; deep and 
shallow ; Eternity and Time. 

EXEKOISE. 

(a) What things are contrasted? 

(b) Is there more than one contrast? 

1. Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven. Milton. 

2. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. Pops. 

3. Character is what we are ; reputation is what others 

think we are. 

4. The weary to sleep and the wounded to die. Campbell. 

5. Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. Gray. 

6. To err is human ; to forgive, divine. Pope. 



FIGURES. 75 

7. Strain at a gnat and swallow a camel. Matt, xxiii. 24. 

8. As sad as earth, as sweet as heaven. Holmes. 

9. From grave to ga}', from lively to severe. Pope. 
10. God made the country, and man made the town. Cowper. 

VI. EPIGRAM. 

Epigram formerly meant an inscription on a monu- 
ment — an epitaph. It is used now with reference to a 
brief, pointed saying that is in the nature of a proverb. 
The best Epigrams are those in which there is an ap- 
parent contradiction between the intended meaning and 
the form of the expression. 

Ex. " Well begun is half done." 

Here the intended meaning is, that if we once under- 
take a task, it is comparatively easy to complete it. 

Like Antithesis, Epigram is founded upon contrast. 
Puns are often expressed by Epigrams. 

EXEEOISE. 

1. Great truths are often said in the fewest words. 

2. He is the richest who is content with the least. Socrates. 

3. The more we do, the more we can do ; the more busy 

we are, the more leisure we have. Hazlett. 

4. The child is father of the man. Wordsworth. 

5. A little learning is a dangerous thing. Pope. 

6. Verbosity is cured by a wide vocabulary. 

7. Beauty, when unadorned, adorned the most. Thomson. 

8. The fastest colors are those that won't run. 

9. A new way to contract debts — pay them off ! 
10. Beneath this stone my wife doth lie ; 

She's now at rest, and so am I. Old Epitaph. 



76 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

VII. METONYMY. 

Metonymy means a change of name. It is some- 
what like Metaphor, but it commonly lies in a single 
word, whereas Metaphor is usually more extended. 

Metaphor is founded upon resemblance. The thing 
spoken of and the tiling meant are alike in some respect 
which is important to the thought. 

Ex. " The Lord is my Shepherd." His care is the point 
illustrated. 

Metonymy is founded upon relation. The thing 
spoken of and the thing meant may be wholly unlike, 
but the relation between them is such that the mention 
of one suggests the other. 

Ex. u The drunkard loves his bottle." Here there is no 
resemblance, but very close relation. 

There are several kinds of Metonymy. The follow- 
ing are among the most common : — 

1. Container for thing contained. 

Ex. The kettle boils, i.e. the water in the kettle. 

2. Sign for thing signified. 

Ex. He deserves the palm. i.e. the victory. 

3. Cause for Effect. 

Ex. Have you read Shakespeare? i.e. his works,, 

4. Effect for Cause. 

Ex. Gray hairs should be respected, i.e. age. 

EXEKOISE. 

(a) Point out the figure. 

(b) What kind of Metonymy is it? 

1. Our ships opened fire. 

2. Streaming grief his faded cheek bedewed, y 



FIGURES. 77 

3. There is too much red tape about this system. 

4. He addressed the Chair. 

5. The bench, the bar, the pulpit. 

6. His steel gleamed on high. 

7. He is an excellent shot. 

8. All flesh is grass. Isaiah xl. 6. 

9. He beheld a sea of faces. 

10. Let us gather around the festive board. 

Some authorities regard as Metonymy the putting of 
the name of the material of which an object is made for 
the name of the thing itself. Others regard this as an 
example of Synecdoche. The connection in which the 
word is used will commonly determine which figure it 
constitutes. 

Is there any figure of this kind in the Exercise ? 

VIII. SYNECDOCHE. 

This figure consists in putting a part for the whole, 
or the whole for a part. It is saying more or less than 
we mean. 

Ex. " Give us this day our daily bread." i.e. all things 
needful for us. Here a part is put for the whole. 

Ex. "The world knows his worth." i.e. the part of the 
world which knows him. Here the whole is used for a part. 

EXEKCSISE. 

(a) Point out the figure. 

(b) Why is it Synecdoche ? 

1. We have tea at six o'clock. 

2. He employs fifty-seven hands. 

3. I will not be paid in paltry gold. 



78 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. Byron. 

5. The cattle upon a thousand hills. Psalms. 

6. A maiden of sixteen summers. 

7. The canvas exhibited by this artist is a marvellous pro- 

duction. 

8. A life on the ocean wave, a home on the rolling deep. 

9. Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. Byron, 
10. She bestowed her hand and heart upon a worthy man. 

IX. APOSTROPHE. 

Apostrophe is direct address to the absent as if they 
were present, to the dead as if they were living, or to 
inanimate things as if they had life. 

It is often combined with Metaphor and Personifi- 
cation. 

EXERCISE. 

(a) What is addressed? 

(6) Is there any other figure? 

1. Gentle Spring, in sunshine clad, 

Well dost thou thy power display. Longfellow. 

2. Thou hast taught me, Silent River, 

Many a lesson, deep and long. Longfellow. 

3. [To the sun.] 

O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my 
fathers ! Ossian. 

4. Thus, O Genius, are thy footprints hallowed. Longfellow. 

5. Toll! toll! toll! 

Thou bell by billows swung. Mrs. Sigourney. 

6. My country, 'tis of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty, 

Of thee I sing. Sam. F. Smith. 



FIGURES. 79 

7. You moon, have you done something wrong in heaven, 
That God has hidden your face ? Jean Ingelow. 

8. Go, little book, whose pages hold 
Those garnered years in loving trust. 

9. O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy 

victory? I. Cor. xv. 55. 

10. Ye winds of memory, sweep the silent lyre. Holmes. 

X. EXCLAMATION. 

Sometimes a statement, instead of being made in a 
declarative form, is made more forcible by being ex- 
pressed in an exclamatory style. When the thought 
springs from real emotion, we may call the figure Ex- 
clamation. 

Not every exclamatory sentence, however, contains 
the rhetorical figure Exclamation. 

Ex. " Oh, yes ! what a pity ! " is exclamatory, but does 
not contain the figure. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Show why this is Exclamation. 

(b) Change to declarative form. 

1 . Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness ! Shakespeare. 

2. How poor are they that have not patience ! Shakespeare. 

3. But oh, fqr the touch of a vanished hand, 

And the sound of a voice that is still ! Tennyson. 

4. How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond recollection presents them to view ! Woodworth. 

5. O strong hearts and true ! Not one went back in the 

Mayflower. Longfellow. 



80 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

6. Oh, what a tangled web we weave 

When first we practise to deceive ! Scott. 

7. A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! Shakespeare. 

8. Oh, the glorious Thanksgivings 

Of the days that are no more ! S mutter. 

9. Oh that the rules of our living 

More like to the golden would be ! Nourse. 

10. Ah ! vainest of all things 

Is the gratitude of kings. Longfellow. 

XL INTERROGATION. 

When a question is asked, not for the purpose of ob- 
taining an answer, but for rhetorical effect, there is the 
figure of Interrogation. Not every interrogative sen- 
tence, however, contains the figure. 

Peculiarities of Rhetorical Interrogation. 

An affirmative interrogation is an emphatic form of 
denial. 

Ex. u Am I Rome's slave?" is understood to mean, You 
well know that I am not Rome's slave. 

A negative Interrogation is an emphatic affirmation. 
Ex. u Am I not an apostle? am I not free?" means, I 
am an apostle, etc. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) What is the effect of the Interrogation ? 

(b) Change to literal form of expression. 

1. What man is free from sin? 

2. Am I my brother's keeper? Gen. iv. 9. 

3. Who is not proud to be an American? 



FIGURES. 81 

4. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star 

In his steep course? Coleridge. 

5. Shall mortal man be more just than God? Job iv. 17. 

6. Hath he not always treasures, always friends — 

The good, great man? Coleridge. 

7. Can the Ethiopian change his skin or the leopard his 

spots? Jer. xiii. 23. 

$. Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at 
the price of chains and slavery? Patrick Henry. 

9. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust? 

Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death ? Gray. 

10. Hast thou entered into the treasures of the snow ? or hast 
thou seen the treasures of the hail? Job xxxviii. 22. 



XII. HYPERBOLE. 

Hyperbole is exaggeration. It is sometimes effective 
in descriptions of the grand and sublime. Often, how- 
ever, it is absurd, and has the opposite effect from that 
intended. 

The extravagant use of strong adjectives is a bad 
habit in conversation and in writing. Extravagant 
comparisons also should be avoided. 

Examples of " School-girl Hyperbole " : — 

I am "tired to death"; "tickled to pieces"; "hot as 
fire" ; "cold as ice " ; " crazy with the tooth-ache " ; " aw- 
fully glad"; " excruciatingly hungry " ; "a perfectly mag- 
nificent time " ; "an exquisitely lovely pug dog " ; "a divine 
moustache." 



82 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Point out the Hyperbole. 

(b) Select the best examples. 

1. Waves mountain high broke over the reef. 

2. They were swifter than eagles ; they were stronger than 

lions. II. Sam. i. 23. 

3. The tumult reaches the stars. 

4. Rivers of water run down my eyes because they keep 

not thy law. Psalms cxix. 136. 

5. Every sentence began or closed with the name of Pris- 

cilla. Longfellow. 

6. I've been looking all over creation for you. 

7. A rescued land 

Sent up a shout of victory from the field, 
That rocked her ancient mountains. 

8. He was so gaunt that the case of a flageolet would have 

been a mansion for him. 

9 . And it shall come to pass in that day that the mountains 

shall drop down new wine, and the hills shall flow 
with milk. Joel iii. 18. 

10. Here [at Concord] once the embattled farmers stood, 
And fired the shot heard round the world. Emerson. 

XIII. CLIMAX. 

Climax is an ascending series of thoughts or state- 
ments which gradually increase in importance. 

In true Climax a weaker or less important thought 
should never follow a stronger one. 

Anti-Climax reverses the order of the expressions, 
ending with the weakest or least important thought or 
circumstance. This is often used in humorous writings. 



FIGURES. 83 



EXEEOISE. 



(a) Is this Climax or Anti-Climax ? 

(6) Why? 

(c) Is the Climax well arranged? 

1 . Since concord was lost, friendship was lost ; fidelity was 

lost ; liberty was lost, — all was lost ! 

2. Here I stand for impeachment or trial ! I dare accusa- 

tion ! I defy the honorable gentleman ! I defy the 
government ! I defy their whole phalaux ! 

3. The enemy is now hovering upon our borders, preparing 

to press the knife to our throats, to devastate our 
fields, to quarter themselves in our houses, and to 
devour our poultry. 

4. How then shall they call on him in whom they have not 

believed ? and how shall they believe in him of whom 
they have not heard ? and how shall they hear without 
a preacher? Romans x. 14. 

5. Oh dear ! oh dear ! what shall I do? 
I've lost my wife and seed corn too ! 

6. David was a great warrior, a great statesman, a great 

poet, and a skillful performer on the harp. 

7. Great men, such as Washington, Adams, Jefferson, 

Arnold, and the friend of my worthy opponent. 

8. He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his 

dog, at one fell swoop. 

9. I am thinking, if Aunt knew so little of sin, 

What a wonder Aunt Tabitha's aunt must have been ; 
And her grand-aunt, — it scares me ! Holmes. 

10. The arm of the Lord is as fixed as fate, as sure as eter- 
nity, as strong as the rock of Gibraltar. 



84 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

XIV. IRONY. 

Irony is disguised satire. When we praise a thing 
and really mean to ridicule it, we make use of this 
figure. 

EXEEOISE. 

Explain the Irony in these extracts : — 

1 . What has the gray-haired prisoner done ? 
Has murder stained his hands with gore ? 
Not so ; his crime is a fouler one — ' 

God made the old man poor. Whittier. 

2. Although I would have you early instill into your chil- 
dren's hearts the love of cruelty, yet by no means call 
it by its true name, but encourage them in it under the 
name of fun. 

3. Have not the Indians been kindly and justly treated? 
Have not the temporal things, the vain baubles and 
filthy lucre of this world, which were too apt to en- 
gage their worldly and selfish thoughts, been benevo- 
lently taken from them ? and have they not instead 
thereof, been taught to set their affections on things 
above ? 

4. Here under leave of Brutus, and the rest, 
(For Brutus is an honourable man ; 

So are they all, all honourable men ;) 
Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. 
He was my friend, faithful and just to me : 
But Brutus says he was ambitious ; 
And Brutus is an honourable man. 

yfc ¥fc $f ifc Tlf t& yfc $£ 

Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up 
To such a sudden flood of mutiny. 



FIGURES. 85 

They that have done this deed, are honourable ; 
What private griefs they have, alas ! I know not, 
That made them do't ; they are wise and honourable, 
And will, no doubt, with reasons answer you. Shakespeare. 

5. Cry aloud : for he is a god ; either he is talking, or 
he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure 
he sleepeth, and must be waked ! 
[Elijah to the priests of Baal.] I. Kings xviii. 27. 



ADDITIONAL FIGUfiES. 
I. Vision. 

Vision consists in describing past, absent, or imagi- 
nary scenes as if they were actually before our eyes. 

It is frequently combined, with Personification and 
Apostrophe. 

Ex. I see before me the gladiator lie ; 

He leans upon his hand — his manly brow 

Consents to death, but conquers agony, 

And his drooped head sinks gradually low. Byron. 

II. Euphemism. 

Euphemism is the mention of disagreeable things by 
agreeable names. 

Ex. "She certainly displays as little vanity in regard to 
her personal appearance as any young lad^y I ever saw " is a 
delicate way of saying, " She is untidy." 

" She suffers from an over-active imagination," meaning 
"She is inclined to exaggerate." 



86 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

III. Onomatopoeia. 

Onomatopoeia is adapting the sound to the sense. 

Ex. Poe's poem "The Bells" contains fine examples of 
this figure ; as does also Southey's " Cataract of Lodore." 

How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, 

In the icy air of night ! 

While the stars that oversprinkle 

All the heavens seem to twinkle 

With a crystalline delight, — 

Keeping time, time, time, 

In a sort of Runic rhyme, 

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells 

From the bells, bells, bells, bells, 

Bells, bells, bells, — 

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. Poe, 

IV. Litotes. 

This figure consists in making a statement by denying 
its opposite. 

Ex. " The immortal names 

That were not born to die." i.e. that will live. 

V. Parallel. 

Parallel is a continued comparison of two similar 
objects, showing the points of resemblance and of dif- 
ference. It is an extended Antithesis. 

Ex. The style of Dryden is capricious and varied ; that 
of Pope is cautious and uniform. Dryden obeys the motions 
of his own mind ; Pope constrains his mind to his ^ules of 
composition. Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid ; 



FIGURES. 87 

Pope is always smooth, uniform, and gentle. Dry den's page 
is a natural field, rising into inequalities, and diversified 
by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation ; Pope's 
is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe and leveled by the 
roller. Johnson. 

VI. Allusion. \ 

Allusion is a reference to some familiar event in 
history or romance, or to some familiar expression in 
literature, for the purpose of explanation, description, 
or illustration. 

Ex. When I was a beggarly boy, 
And lived in a cellar damp, 
I had not a friend nor a toy, 
But I had Aladdin's lamp. 
When I could not sleep for cold, 
I had fire enough in my brain ; 
And builded with roofs of gold 
My beautiful castles in Spain. Lowell. 

He was the Achilles of the war. 

The * of his profession, the type of honesty, the ! of all; 
and though the |y of death has put a . to his existence, 
every § of his life is without a || . Printers' Toast to Franklin. 

VII. Alliteration. 

Alliteration is not strictly a figure of speech, but is 
sometimes called a figure of emphasis. It consists in 
the repetition of the same initial letter in successive 
words. The use of this device was the distinguishing 
characteristic of early Anglo-Saxon poetry ; and modern 
poetry contains many effective examples. Alliteration 



88 LESSONS IN ENGLISH 

occurs in many proverbs. It is employed in titles of 
books and headings of newspaper articles. 

Ex. "Apt Alliteration's artful aid." "Many men of 
many minds." 

VIII. Pleonasm. 

This figure consists in the use of redundant words, 
for purposes of emphasis. What is ordinarily a fault in 
construction may make the thought clearer and more 
forcible. 

Ex. " Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me." u Know 
ye that the Lord he is God." 

FAULTY PIGUBES. 

Use of Figures. — The chief purposes in the use of 
figures are the following : — 

First. To make the thought more agreeable or attrac- 
tive. Figures are the ornaments of speech. 

Second. To make the thought clearer and more forcible, 
by explanation and illustration. 

Abuse of Figures. — Figures which do not serve 
either of these purposes are faulty. Simile and Meta- 
phor, being the figures most commonly employed, are 
those in the use of which young writers are most likely 
to err. Hyperbole, Antithesis, Exclamation, and Climax 
are other figures which are liable to abuse. 

MISTAKES m THE USE OF SIMILE AND 
METAPHOR. 

1. Too Close Resemblance. — The resemblance upon 
which the figure is founded should not be too close and 



FIGURES. 89 

obvious. It pleases the mind to discover a likeness 
where, at first sight, none appears to exist. 

Ex. The comparison of two ambitious men — Napoleon 
to Caesar, two rich men — Vanderbilt to Croesus, two beauti- 
ful women — Eve to Venus, does not constitute a good simile 
or metaphor. 

A fleecy cloud may be compared to snow, which it 
closely resembles ; but the mind is better pleased with 
Lowell's fancy of 

" A sky above, 
Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move." 

Ossian says of a strain of music : — 

It was " Like the memory of joys that are past, sweet and 
mournful to the soul." 

This is far more effective than if he had compared the 
music to the song of a lark or a nightingale. 

Whittier, in describing a quick-tempered woman, 

says : — 

" Under low brows, black with night, 
Rayed out at times a dangerous light, 
The sharp heat-lightnings of her face." 

This unusual metaphor is more forcible than such 
expressions as "the angry blaze of her eyes " or "a face 
lit with flames of passion." 

2. Worn-out Figures. — Many comparisons which 
were originally beautiful and impressive have become 
so familiar by the repetition of generations of writers 
that they no longer add grace and dignity to the style. 
Such figures may be described as trite and hackneyed. 
The use of them. should be avoided. 



y 



90 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Ex. The silver moon ; smiling morn ; raven tresses ; ruby 
lips ; alabaster brow ; eyes bright as stars ; fair as a lily ; 
cunning as a fox ; brave as a lion ; cold as ice ; the com- 
parison of passion to a tempest ; time to a river ; a mourner 
to a drooping flower. 

3. Too Remote Resemblance. — Figures should not 
be founded upon too remote resemblance. Such similes 
and metaphors are regarded as far-fetched. Compar- 
isons of this kind do not embellish the thought nor do 
they add to its clearness and force. On the other hand, 
they divert the mind from the main thought, in the 
attempt to discover a likeness which is not apparent. 

Ex. Longfellow thus describes the coming of night : — 

"The day is done, and the darkness 
Falls from the wing of night, 
As a feather is wafted downward 
From an eagle in his flight." 

When we study this figure, we are disappointed in 
the illustration. There is neither beauty nor accuracy 
in comparing the darkness that slowly and almost im- 
perceptibly envelops all nature to a feather dropped 
from a bird's wing. 

4. Inappropriate Figures. — Figures should be in 
harmony with the subject which they are intended to 
explain or illustrate or adorn. 

In serious discourse, -similes and metaphors should 
not be drawn from resemblances to things that are low 
and trivial. Such comparisons are degrading to the style. 

Ex. "Our prayers and God's mercy are like two buckets 
in a well. While one ascends, the other descends." 



FIGURES. 91 

Here the thought derives no force from the illustra- 
tion, because the comparison is inappropriate. Observe 
also that the bucket which descends is the empty one. 

J. G. Holland describes a stream as 

" Sparkling through a lovely valley like a gold chain over 
an embroidered vest." 

We instinctively feel that such a comparison is in 
bad taste. 

In humorous writings, it is often the author's inten- 
tion to reduce the sublime to the ridiculous by compari- 
sons of this kind. Many examples of burlesque simile 
may be found in the writings of Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

Ex. " And silence, like a poultice, comes 

To heal the blows of sound." 

The humor of such an expression consists in the 
surprise of finding a resemblance between things which 
are so diverse in character. There is danger, however, 
of carrying this style of writing to excess. Holmes 
makes this mistake when he says : — 

"Two meeting-houses stood on two eminences facing each 
other, and looking like a couple of fighting-cocks with their 
necks straight up in the air, — as if they would flap their 
roofs the next thing, and crow out of their upstretched 
steeples, and peck at each other's glass eyes with their 
sharp-pointed weather-cocks." 

Under the head of Inappropriate Figures, should be 
noticed what is sometimes called " high-flown " lan- 
guage or bombast. This consists in the attempt to 
elevate low or trivial subjects by comparisons with 
the lofty and sublime. 



92 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Ex. A public speaker, referring to one of our common 
anniversary days, exclaimed, "Pharos of the Ages, we hail 
thy glimmerings 'mid the cataracts of Time ! " 

A young writer describes a der>d cat floating on the sur- 
face of the water as "complacently crossing the Styx of 
feline futurity. " 

5. Unfamiliar Objects. — Similes and Metaphors 
should not be drawn from objects with which the 
ordinary reader is unacquainted. Such figures fail to 
enlighten the reader, and they make the writer appear 
affected and pedantic. 

Under the title of " Unfamiliar Objects" may be 
noted comparisons founded upon — 

1. Local and personal allusions and traditions. 

2. References to obscure places. 

3. Mention of obscure characters in mythology, romance, 

or history. 

4. Facts in science or philosophy, or technical terms 

pertaining to trades and professions. 

Examples from Holmes : " MaelzeFs Turk" ; "the marshes 
ofCagliari"; "Ichaboe" ;" the Codex Vaticanus"; "riding 
at the quintain" ; " Babbage's calculating machine" ; "the 
parallax of thought and feeling" ; " Chladni's experiment" ; 
" the Gayatri " ; " somebody's O'm." 

6. Strained Metaphors. — Metaphors should not be 
carried too far. If the comparison is drawn out into 
trivial details, the effect is wearisome to the reader and 
belittling to the thought. 

Ex. Young furnishes an example of strained met- 
aphor when he says of old age that it should 



FIGURES. 93 

" Walk thoughtful on the silent, solemn shore 
Of that vast ocean it must sail so soon ; 
And put good works on board ; and wait the wind 
That shortly blows us into worlds unknown." 

The first two lines are beautiful and impressive, but 
their effect is weakened by the added particulars of 
loading the ship and waiting for the wind. 

Lowell thus describes the growth of friendship : — 

u Each year to ancient friendships adds a ring, 
As to an oak, and precious more and more, 
Without deservingness or help of ours, 
They grow, and, silent, wider spread, each year, 
Their unbought ring of shelter or of shade." 

This impresses us as a happy thought, well expressed ; 
but when he goes on to say, 

u Sacred to me the lichens on the bark, 

Which Nature's milliners would scrape away," 

we feel that he has carried the metaphor too far. 

7. Mixed Metaphors. — The fault here referred to 
has two manifestations : — 

1. The confusion of different metaphors in the same 

sentence. 

2. The intermingling of metaphorical language with 

literal. 

Example of Confused Metaphor : — 

" May the word preached be like a nail driven in a sure 
; lace, sending its roots downward and its branches upward, 
spreading itself like a green bay-tree, fair as the moon, clear 
as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners." 



94 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Example of the Literal blended with the Metaphor- 
ical : — 

He was the very keystone of the state, and remarkable 
for his delicate handwriting. 

This is a serious fault in composition. It is evident 
that either the metaphorical or the literal form of ex- 
pression should be maintained until the thought is com- 
pleted. 

EXEEOISE. 

Criticise the following faulty figures : — 

1. Mr. Speaker, I smell a rat, I see him floating in the air ; 

but mark me, sir, I will nip him in the bud. 

2. Jonas, my son, you are entering upon your life ; before 

you the doors of the future open wide, and, like a 
young squirrel escaping from his cage, you go forth 
to navigate the sea of life upon your own wings. 

3. The germ, the dawn, of a new vein in literature lies 

there. 

4. Her cheeks bloomed with roses and health. 

5. Ideas rejected peremptorily at the time often rankle and 

bear fruit by and by. 

6. He flung his powerful frame into the saddle and his 

great soul into the cause. 

7. This world with all its trials is the furnace through 

which the soul must pass and be developed before it 
is ripe for the next world. 

8. The very recognition of these or any of them by the 

jurisprudence of a nation is a mortal wound to the 






FIGURES. 95 

very keystone upon which the whole vast arch of 
morality reposes. 

9. Some of these groundworks are, like sand, lacking in 
power and solidity to sustain the mighty edifice of 
Christian sanctifi cation ; and so it comes to pass, too 
frequently, that men who did run well fail in their 
course and make shipwreck of both faith and good- 
ness. 

10. Sailing on the sea of # life, we are often in danger from 

the temptations around us. 

11. Virtue alone can save us from the hosts of evil when 

they roll in upon us. 

12. He alone can manage the storm-tossed ship of state on 

its march. 

13. Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the 

thickest gloom. 

14. Eaton, Davenport, and five others were the seven pillars 

for the next House of Wisdom in the wilderness. In 
August, 1639, the seven pillars assembled, possess- 
ing for the time full power. 

15. We must keep the ball rolling until it becomes a thorn 

in the side of Congress. 

16. Opposite in the blue vault stood the moon like a silver 

shield, raining her bright arrows on the sea. 

17. We thank thee, Lord, for this spark of grace ; and we 

ask thee to water it. 

18. The little church at Jones ville is once more tossed upon 

the waves, a sheep without a shepherd. 



96 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF FIGUEES. 

(a) Point out and name the Figures. 

(b) Select all the Similes, Metaphors, etc. 

1. He that would govern . others must first be master of 

himself. 

2. Tread softly and speak low ; 

For the old year lies a-dying. Tennyson, 

3. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax. Longfellow. 

4. Stars of the summer night ! 
Far in yon azure deeps 

Hide, hide your golden light ! Longfellow. 

5. So even ran his line of life, 

The neighbors thought it odd. Saxe. 

6. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll ! Byron. 

7. Earth which seemed to the fathers meant 
But as a pilgrim's wayside tent, — 

A nightly shelter to fold away 

When the Lord shall call at break of day. Whittier, 

8. To arms ! they come ! the Greek ! the Greek ! Halleck. 

9. A Gourd wound itself around a lofty Palm, and in 
a few days climbed to its very top. u How old may'st 
thou be?" asked the new-comer. " About a hundred 
years." " About a hundred years, and no taller ! Only 
see ! I have grown as tall as you in fewer days than 
you can count years." 

" I know that very well," replied the Palm. " Every 
summer of my life a gourd has climbed up around me, 
as proud as thou art, and as short-lived as thou wilt be ! " 
10. Everyman has in himself a continent of undiscovered 
character. Happy is he who acts the Columbus to his 
own soul ! Stephen, 



FIGURES. 97 

11. Green be the turf above thee, 
Friend of my better days. 
None knew thee but to love thee, 

None named thee but to praise. Halleck. 

12. Really, Mr. President, I am delighted with the honor- 
able gentleman's mode of speaking extempore. I like 
his speeches a great deal better without his notes than 
with them. He has this day thrown all ancient and 
modern orators into the shade. 

13. Every young man is now a sower of seed on the field 
of life. These bright days of youth are the seed-time. 
Every thought of your intellect, every emotion of }*our 
heart, every word of your tongue, every principle you 
adopt, every act you perform, is a seed, whose good or 
evil fruit will be the bliss or bane of your after-life. Wise. 

14. The many make the household, 

But only one the home. Lowell, 

15. And the nations, rising up, their sorry 
And foolish sins shall put away, 

As children their toys when the teacher enters. 

Mrs. Browning, 

16. And thrice the Saxon blade drank blood. Scott. 

1 7. What I spent I had ; 
What I kept I lost ; 
What I gave I have. 

18. He raised a mortal to the skies ; 

She drew an angel down. Dryden. 

19. From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 

Leaps the live thunder. Byron. 

20. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. Coivper. 



98 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

21. Like the baseless fabric of this vision, 

The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces, 

The solemn temples, the great globe itself, 

With all that it inherits, shall dissolve, 

And like this unsubstantial pageant faded, 

Leave not a rack behind. Shakespeare. 

22. The south wind searches for the flowers 
Whose fragrance late he bore ; 

And sighs to find them in the wood 

And by the stream no more. Bryant. 

23. A great many children get on the wrong track because 

the switch is misplaced. 

24. He worked hard to keep the wolf from the door. 

25. I found her on the floor, 

In all the storm of grief, yet beautiful, 

Pouring forth tears at such a lavish rate, 

That were the world on fire, they might have drowned 

The wrath of heaven, and quenched the might}' ruin. Lee, 

26. A mind for thoughts to pass into, 
A heart for loves to travel through, 
Five senses to detect things near, — 

Is this the whole that we are here? Clough. 

27. Some are too foolish to commit follies. 

28. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again ! Knoivles. 

29. And like the wings of sea-birds 

Flash the white-caps of the sea. Longfellow. 

30. No pain, no palm ; no thorns, no throne ; no gall, no 

glory ; no cross, no crown. William Penn. 

31. Thou art a female, Katydid ! 
I know it by the trill 

That quivers through thy piercing notes. Holmes. 

32. Give me liberty, or give me death ! Patrick Henry. 



FIGURES. 99 

33. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, 
Their homely joys, and destiny obscure ; 
Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile 

The short and simple annals of the poor. Gray. 

34. Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or 
wings and feathers unto the ostrich? Job xxxix. 13. 

35. To see Niagara, you buy eleven silk dresses for your 
wife, and six shirts for yourself. You then get all the 
ready money you have, borrow all your friends have, 
and make arrangements for unlimited credit at two or 
three good solvent banks. You then take six trunks, 
some more mone}-, a nurse, a colored servant, some 

'more money, and then, after getting some more money 
and extending your credit at one or two strong banks 
besides, you set out. It is better, if possible, just be- 
fore you start, to mortgage your homestead, and get 
some more money. 

36. Glory is like a circle in the water 
Which never ceaseth to enlarge itself 

Till by broad spreading it disperse to naught. Shakespeare. 

37. Wit is a dangerous weapon. Montaigne. 
38* Experience is a hard teacher. 

39. The sufficiency of my merit is to know that my merit is 

not sufficient. St. Augustine. 

40. Not he that repeateth the name, 

But he that doeth the will. Longfellow. 

41. Her commerce whitens every sea. 

42. There were tones in the voice that whispered then 
You may hear to-day in a hundred men. Holmes. 

43. Leaves have their time to fall, 

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath, 



100 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

And stars to set — but all, 

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death ! 

Mrs. Hemans. 

44. A humming-bird met a butterfly, and being pleased 
with the beauty of his person and the glory of his wings, 
made an offer of perpetual friendship. 

" I cannot think of it," was the reply, u as you once 
spurned me and called me a drawling dolt." 

" Impossible ! " exclaimed the humming-bird. "I al- 
ways had the highest respect for such beautiful creatures 
as you." 

" Perhaps you have now," said the other ; " but when 
you insulted me, I was a caterpillar. So let me give 
you a piece of advice. Never insult the humble, as 
they may some day become your superiors." 

45. Presence of mind is greatly promoted by absence of body. 

46. The voices of the Present say, " Come!" But the 
voices of the Past say, " Wait ! " Longfellow. 

47. A year has gone, as the tortoise goes, 

Heavy and slow. Whittier. 

48. The billows of the organ roared among the clustered 
columns, as the sea breaks amidst the basaltic pillars 
which crowd the stormy cavern of the Hebrides. Holmes. 

49. How sweet it was to draw near my own home after 
living homeless in the world so long ! Hawthorne. 

50. Weariness 

Can snore upon the flint, when resty sloth 

Finds the down-pillow hard. Shakespeare. 

51. Henry went over to the nation; Mr. Lincoln has 
steadily drawn the nation over to him. One left a 
united France ; the other, we hope and believe, a re- 
united America. Lowell. 



FIGURES. 101 

52. Sweet are the uses of adversity, 
Which like the toad, ugly and venomous, 

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head. Shakespeare. 

53. I talk, half the time, to find out my own thoughts, as 
a schoolboy turns his pockets inside out to see what is 
in them. Holmes. 

54. Thy word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto 
my path. Psalms cxix. 105. 

55. We have complained ; we have petitioned ; we have 
entreated ; we have supplicated ; we have even pros- 
trated ourselves at the foot of the throne, without mov- 
ing royal clemency. 

56. Ere long he reached the magnificent glacier of the 
Rhone ; a frozen cataract more than two thousand feet 
in height, and many miles broad at its base. It fills 
the whole valley between two mountains, running back 
to their summits. At the base it is arched, like a dome, 
and above, jagged and rough, and resembles a mass of 
gigantic crystals of a pale emerald tint, mingled with 
white. A snowy crust covers its surface ; but at every 
rent and crevice the pale-green ice shines clear in the 
sun. Its shape is that of a glove, lying with the palms 
downwards, and the fingers crooked and close together. 
It is a gauntlet of ice, which, centuries ago, Winter, the 
king of these mountains, threw down in defiance to the 
Sun; and year by year the Sun strives in vain to lift it from 
the ground on the point of his glittering spear. Longfellow. 

57. I have seen 

A curious child, who dwelt upon a tract 
Of inland ground, applying to his ear 
The convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell, 
To which, in silence hushed, his very soul 



102 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Listened intensely : and his countenance soon 

Brightened with joy ; for, murmuring from within, 

"Were heard sonorous cadences, whereby, 

To his belief the monitor expressed 

Mysterious union with its native sea. 

Even such a shell the universe itself 

Is to the ear of Faith. Wordsworth. 

58. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
How complicate, how wonderful is man ! 

How passing wonder He who made him such ! Shakespeare. 

59. Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! Cowper. 

60. The wind grumbled and made itself miserable all 
last night, and this morning it is still howling as ill- 
naturedly as ever, and roaring and rumbling in the 
chimneys. Hawthorne. 

61. Oh ! a wonderful stream is the river Time. Taylor. 

62. Nobody knew how the fisherman brown, 
With a look of despair that was half a frown, 
Faced his fate on that furious night, 

Faced the mad billows with hunger white, 

Just within hail of a beacon light 

That shone on a woman fair and trim, 

Waiting for him. Lucy Larcom. 

63. And the cares that infest the day 
Shall fold their tents like the Arabs, 

And as silently steal away. Longfellow. 

64. Our fathers' God ! from out whose hand 
The centuries fall like grains of sand, 
We meet to-day, united, free, 

And loyal to our land and Thee, 
To thank Thee for the era done, 
And trust Thee for the opening one. Whittier. 



FIGURES. 103 

65. Were I Midas, I would make nothing else but just 
such golden days as these, over and over again, all the 
year throughout. My best thoughts always come a lit- 
tle too late. Why did I not tell you how old King 
Midas came to America and changed the dusky autumn, 
such as it is in other countries, into the burnished 
beauty which it here puts on ? He gilded the leaves of 
the great volume of Nature. Hawthorne. 

66. Regular as pulse's rise and fall 

Boomed the long echo of the breaking seas. 

67. Live well — Die never ; 

Die well — Live forever. Old Epitaph. 

68. I remember, I remember, 
How my childhood fleeted by ; 
The mirth of its December, 

And the warmth of its July. Hood. 

69. O wad some power the giftie gie us, 

To see oursels as ithers see us ! Burns. 

70. Everything came to him marked by Nature, Right side 
up with care, and he kept it so. The world to him, as 
to all of us, was like a medal, on the obverse of which 
is stamped the image of Joy, and on the reverse that of 

Care. S never took the foolish pains to look at that 

other side, even if he knew of its existence. Lowell. 

71. A wise man is never less alone than when he is alone. 

72. Put not your trust in money, but put } T our money in 

trust. 

73. He stood firm at his post. 

74. Like a spear of flame the cardinal flower 

Burned out along the meadow. Eddy. 



104 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

75. Time is the warp of life. 

Oh, tell the young, the gay, the fair, 

To weave it well ! Marsden. 

76. Now came still Evening on, and Twilight gray 

Had in her sober livery all things clad. Milton. 

77. Quoth David to Daniel, " Why is it these scholars 
Abuse one another whenever they speak? " 
Quoth Daniel to David, " It nat-rally f oilers 

Folks come to hard words if they meddle with Greek ! " 

Saxe. 

78. In '93, he landed in Boston, then the front-door of 
America. Lowell. 

79. Rich gift of God ! A year of time ! 
What pomp of rise and shut of day, 
What hues wherewith our Northern clime 
Makes autumn's dropping woodlands gaj r , 
What airs out-blown from ferny dells, 
And clover-bloom and sweetbrier smells, 

What songs of brooks and birds, what fruits and 

flowers, 
Green woods and moon-lit snows, have in its round been 

ours ! Whittier. 

80. Law is like a contra-dance : people are led up and 
down in it until they are tired. Law is like a book of 
surgery : there are a great many desperate cases in it. 
Law is like physic : they that take the least of it are the 
best off. Law is like a new fashion : people are be- 
witched to get into it. Law is like bad weather : most 
people are glad when they get out of it. Law is law : 
and as in such and so forth, hereby and whereby, and 
aforesaid, provided always, nevertheless, notwithstand- 
ing, wherefore, whichsoever, and whereas. 



FIGURES. 105 

81. How sleep the brave who sink to rest 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 

Jfc -fe % ■&■ %r •%? 

By fairy hands their knell is rung ; 

By forms unseen their dirge is sung ; 

There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 

To bless the turf that wraps their clay ; 

And Freedom shall awhile repair, 

To dwell a weeping hermit there. Collins. 

82. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. Byron, 

83. Contentment is a pearl of great price. Balguy, 

84. The temperate are the most truly luxurious. 

85. Better a death when work is done, than earth's most 

favored birth ; 
Better a child in God's great house, than the king of all 
the earth ! Macdonald. 

86. Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, 
The bridal of the earth and sky, 

The dews shalt weep thy fall to-night, 

For thou must die. Herbert. 

87. Our very hopes belied our fears, 
Our fears our hopes belied ; 

We thought her dying when she slept, 

And sleeping when she died. Hood. 

88. In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou 
return unto the ground ; for out of it wast thou taken : 
for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return. 

Gen. Hi. 19. 



106 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

89. He may live without books, — what is knowledge but 

grieving ? 
He may live without hope, — what is hope but deceiving? 
He may live without love, — what is passion but pining? 
But where is the man who can live without dining ? 

Owen Meredith. 

90. The inventions of paper and the press have put an 
end to all these restraints ; they have made every one a 
writer, and enabled every mind to pour itself into print, 
and diffuse itself over the whole intellectual world. The 
consequences are alarming. The stream of literature 
has swollen into a torrent, augmented into a river, ex- 
panded into a sea. Irving. 

91. Life, we've been long together, 

Through pleasant and through cloudy weather. 

'Tis hard to part when friends are dear ; 

Perhaps 'twill cost a sigh, a tear ; 

Then steal away, give little warning ; 

Choose thine own time ; 

Say not " good- night," 

But in some brighter clime 

Bid me, " good-morning ! " Mrs. Barbauld. 

92. The Night is mother of the Day, 
The Winter of the Spring, 
And ever upon old Decay 

The greenest mosses cling. 

Behind the cloud the starlight lurks, 

Through showers the sunbeams fall ; 

For God, who loveth all his works, 

Has left his Hope with all ! Whittier. 

93. How beautiful is youth ! how bright it gleams 
With its illusions, aspirations, dreains ! 



FIGUKES. 107 

Book of Beginnings, Story without End, 

Each maid a heroine, and each man a friend ! Longfellow. 

94. There were two or three pretty faces among the fe- 
male singers, to which the keen air of a frosty morning 
had given a bright rosy tint : but the gentlemen choris- 
ters had evidently been chosen, like old Cremona fiddles, 
more for tone than looks ; and as several had to sing 
from the same book, there were clusterings of odd phy- 
siognomies, not unlike those groups of cherubs we some- 
times see on country tombstones. Irving. 

95. Others shall sing the song, 
Others shall right the wrong , 
Finish what I begin, 

And all I fail of win. 

What matter, I or they? 

Mine or another's day, 

So the right word be said 

And life the sweeter made ? Whittier. 

96. Breathes there the man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land? 

Whose heart hath ne'er within him burn'd, 

As home his footsteps he hath turn'd? Scott. 

97. O summer day beside the joyous sea ! 
O summer day so wonderful and white, 
So full of gladness and so full of pain ! 
Forever and forever shalt thou be 

To some the gravestone of a dead delight, 

To some the landmark of a new domain. Longfellow. 

98. The reader must not, from any testimony of mine, 
contract a dislike toward our slumberous stream. In 
the light of a calm and golden sunset it becomes lovely 



108 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

beyond expression ; the more lovely for the quietude 
that so well accords with the hour, when even the 
wind, after blustering all day, usually hushes itself to 
rest. Each tree and rock, and every blade of grass, 
is distinctly imaged, and however unsightly in reality, 
assumes ideal beauty in the reflection. . . . All the 
sky glows downward at our feet ; the rich clouds float 
through the unruffled bosom of the stream like heavenly 
thoughts through a peaceful heart. We will not, then, 
malign our river as gross and impure while it can 
glorify itself with so adequate a picture of the heaven 
that broods above it ; or, if we remember its tawny 
hue and the muddiness of its bed, let it be a symbol 
that the earthliest human soul has an infinite spiritual 
capacity and may contain the better world within its 
depths. Hawthorne. 

99. "No more!" Oh, how majestically mournful are 
those words ! They sound like the roar of the wind 
through a forest of pines. Longfellow. 

100. Life is a leaf of paper white, 
Whereon each one of us may write 

His word or two, and then comes night. Lowell. 

101. When can their glory fade? 
Oh, the wild charge they made ! 
All the world wondered. 
Honor the charge they made ! 
Honor the Light Brigade, — 

Noble six hundred ! Tennyson. 

102. He who thinks his place below him will certainly be 
below his place. Saville. 

103. A day — an hour — of virtuous liberty is worth a 
whole eternity in bondage, 



FIGURES. 109 

104. It will bring his gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 

105. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again ; 
The eternal years of God are hers : 

But Error, wounded, writhes with pain, 

And dies among her worshipers. Bryant. 

106. My own self-pity, like the redbreast bird, 
Flies back to cover all that past with leaves. 

Mrs. Browning. 

107. Maiden, that read'st this simple rhyme, 
Enjoy thy youth, it will not stay ; 
Enjoy the fragrance of thy prime, 

For oh, it is not always May ! 

Enjoy the Spring of Love and Youth, 

To some good angel leave the rest ; 

For Time will teach thee soon the truth, 

There are no birds in last year's nest ! Longfellow. 

108. Recollect that while dwelling with the fond garrulity 
of age over these fairy scenes, endeared to thee by 
the recollections of thy youth, and the charms of a 
thousand legendary tales which beguiled the simple 
ear of thy childhood ; recollect that thou art trifling 
with those fleeting moments which should be devoted 
to loftier things. Is not Time — relentless Time — 
shaking, with palsied hand, his almost exhausted hour- 
glass before thee ? Irving. 

109. It [the old garret] has a flooring of laths with ridges 
of mortar squeezed up between them, which, if you 
tread on, you will go to — the Lord have mercy upon 
you ! where will you go to ? — the same being crossed 
by narrow bridges of boards, on which you may put 
your feet, but with fear and trembling. Holmes. 



110 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

110. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, 

A ragged beggar sunning. Whittier. 

111. They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear 
them. Luke xvi. 29. 

112. Ring out the thousand wars of old, 

Ring in the thousand years of peace. Tennyson. 

113. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, 1 give 
my hand and heart to this vote. Webster. 

114. Marbles forget their message to mankind. Holmes. 

115. Who does not know the tale as told in the magic 
page of Shakespeare? Irving. 

116. I cannot help being glad that our foolish Pandora 
peeped into the box. No doubt — no doubt — the 
Troubles are still flying about the world, and have 
increased in multitude, rather than lessened, and are a 
very ugly set of imps, and carry most venomous stings 
in their tails. I have felt them already, and expect to 
feel them more, as I grow older. But then, that lovely 
and lightsome little figure of Hope ! What in the world 
could we do without her ? Hope spiritualizes the earth ; 
Hope makes it always new ; and, even in the earth's 
best and brightest aspect, Hope shows it to be only the 
shadow of an infinite bliss hereafter. Hawthorne. 

117. Humble we must be, if to heaven we go ; 

High is the roof there, but the gate is low. Herrick. 

118. " Fly pride," says the peacock. 

119. Precept is instruction written in the sand. The 
tide flows over it, and the record is gone. Example 
is engraved upon the rock. Channing. 

120. Oh ! what a glory doth this world put on, 
For him who, with a fervent heart, goes forth 



FIGURES. Ill 

Under the bright and glorious sky, and looks 
On duties well performed and days well spent ! 

Longfellow. 

121. How the mountains talked together, 
Looking down upon the weather, 

When they heard our friend had planned his 

Little trip among the Andes ! 

How they'll bare their snowy scalps 

To the climber of the Alps, 

When the cry goes through their passes, 

44 Here comes the great Agassiz ! " 

" Yes, I'm tall," says Chimborazo, 

" But I'll wait for him to say so, — 

That's the only thing that lacks, — he 

Must see me, Cotopaxi ! " 

" Ay ! ay ! " the fire-peak thunders, 

" And he must view my wonders ! 

I'm but a lonely crater 

Till I have him for spectator." Holmes. 

122. O earth, so full of dreary noises ! 

O men, with wailing in your voices ! 

O delved gold, the wailer's heap ! 

O strife, O curse, that o'er it fall ! 

God strikes a silence through you all, 

And " giveth His beloved, sleep." Mrs. Browning. 

123. How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle ! 
O Jonathan, thou wast slain in thine high places. I 
am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan : very 
pleasant hast thou been unto me : thy love to me was 
wonderful, passing the love of women. How are the 
mighty fallen, and the weapons of war perished ! 

II. Sam. i. 25-27. 



112 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

124. The waters slept. Night's silvery veil hung low 
On Jordan's bosom, and the eddies curled 
Their glassy rings beneath it, like the still, 
Unbroken beating of the sleeper's pulse. 

The reeds bent down the stream ; the willow leaves, 

With a soft cheek upon the lulling tide, 

Forgot the lifting winds ; and the long stems, 

Whose flowers the water, like a gentle nurse, 

Bears on its bosom, quietly gave way, 

And leaned, in graceful attitudes, to rest. 

How strikingly the course of nature tells, 

By its light heed of human suffering, 

That it was fashioned for a happier world ! Willis. 

125. Is it peace or war? better war ! loud war by land and 

by sea, 
War with a thousand battles, and shaking a hundred 
thrones. Tennyson. 

126. Every man would live long, but no man would be old. 

127. Out on the hills in mild spring weather, 
So early only the blue-birds knew, 
Thousands of little flowers grew together, 
Purple and pink and white and blue. 

While the March storm raged and fretted and wept, 
And froze its song in the blue-bird's throat, 
'Neath mottled leaf blankets they soundly slept, 
Close wrapped in their soft fur overcoats. 

Mrs. J. S. Bayne. 

128. I see the pyramids building ; I hear the shoutings of 
the army of Alexander ; I feel the ground shake beneath 
the march of Cambyses. I sit as in a theatre, — the 
stage is time, the play is the world. Alex. Smith. 

129. Who steals my purse, steals trash. Shakespeare. 



FIGURES. 113 

130. " But, Mr. Speaker, we have a right to tax Amer- 
ica." Oh, inestimable right ! Oh, wonderful, trans- 
cendent right ! the assertion of which has cost this 
country thirteen provinces, six islands, one hundred 
thousand lives, and seventy millions of money. Burke. 

131. Yet in herself she dwelleth not, 
Although no home were half so fair ; 
No simplest duty is forgot, 

Life hath no dim and lowly spot 

That doth not in her sunshine share. Lowell. 

132. Lee marched over the mountain wall, — 
Over the mountains winding down, 

Horse and foot, into Frederick town. Whittier. 

133. There was a sound of revelry by night, 
And Belgium's capital had gathered then 
Her beauty and her chivalry, and bright 

The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. Byron. 

134. This makes the character complete. Whatsoever 
things are false, whatsoever things are dishonest, what- 
soever things are unjust, whatsoever things are impure, 
whatsoever things are hateful, whatsoever things are 
of evil report — if there be any vice, and if there be 
any infamy, all these things we know were blended in 
Barere. Maeaulay. [Compare with Philippians iv. 8.] 

135. Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, 
Having some business, do entreat her eyes 
To twinkle in their spheres till they return. 
What if her eyes were there, they in her head, 

The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars, 
As daylight doth a lamp ; her eye in heaven 
Would through the airy region stream so bright, 
That birds would sing, and think it were not night. 

Shakespeare. 



114 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

136. Sceptre and crown 
Must tumble down, 

And in the dust be equal made 

With the poor crooked scythe and spade. Shirley. 

137. As he walked, his eyes were on the ground. 

138. His death, which happened in his berth, 
At forty-odd befell ; 

They went and told the sexton, and 

The sexton tolled the bell. Hood. 

139. All is not gold that glitters. 

140. I speak within bounds when I say that the British 
traveler is not exceptionally noted, in any part of the 
world, for the gentle humility with which he submits 
to the extortions and other disagreeable things incident 
to a tourist's life. 

141. And it bubbles and seethes, and it hisses and roars, 
As when fire is with water commix'd and contending, 
And the spray of its wrath to the welkin up-soars, 
And flood upon flood hurries on, never ending. 

Schiller. [Description of a whirlpool.] 

142. Better not be at all 

Than not be noble. Tennysor. 

143. Alas ! for the rarity 
Of Christian charity 

Under the sun ! Hood. 

144. They are poor 

That have lost nothing : they are poorer far 
Who, losing, have forgotten : they most poor 
Of all, who lose and wish they might forget. 

Jean Ingelow. 

145. The night is calm and cloudless, 

And still as still can be, 



FIGURES. 115 

And the stars come forth to listen 

To the music of the sea. 

They gather and gather and gather, 

Until they crowd the sky, 

And listen, in breathless silence, 

To the solemn litany. Longfellow. 

146. Why is dust and ashes proud? 

147. Books are the legacies that genius leaves to mankind. 

148. Leafless are the trees ; their purple branches 
Spread themselves abroad, like reefs of coral, 

Rising silent 
In the Red Sea of the winter sunset. Longfelloiv. 

149. Like warp and woof all destinies 

Are woven fast, 
Linked in sympathy like the keys 
Of an organ vast. 

Pluck one thread, and the web ye mar ; 

Break but one 
Of a thousand keys, and the paining jar 

Through all will run. Whittier. 

150. A Streamlet started forth from a spring in the side 
of a mountain, and, after an infancy of gay leaps in 
bright cascades, spread out into a more quiet and 
steady movement. It began then to dream and medi- 
tate on the object for which it existed. While in this 
grave mood a Will-o'-wisp darted out and danced over 
its waters. 

"Ah," cried the Streamlet, " this is a heavenly 
light sent to tell me what I wish to know, and to guide 
my course." 



116 LESSONS IK ENGLISH. 

But the Will-o'-wisp soon flitted away and vanished, 
leaving the Streamlet more perplexed than before. Its 
first creed was gone. Then a rosy cloud floated in the 
sky and mirrored itself in the bosom of the Stream. 

" This," it cried, " is a token of Paradise ! " 

But a wind ruffled the water, and the tinted cloud 
was mirrored no more ; and when the Streamlet be- 
came still again, the rosy cloud had passed from the 
sky. Then a water-lily expanded on its waves. 

"Behold!" said the Streamlet; " to nourish this 
beauty is the end and aim of my life." 

But the lily presently folded up and perished. The 
Streamlet moved on. Presently it came to a spot 
where men had thrown hard stones in its way, ob- 
structed its course, turned it aside through a narrow 
channel and forced it to rush in a confused perilous 
way over a wheel. 

" Alas ! " cried the Streamlet ; " is it then for this 
agony I was born ? " 

But after some wild splashes the Streamlet found 
itself at peace again and went on widening. And now a 
glorious moon came out and showered gold all over it. 

" How wealthy I am ! " cried the Streamlet. 

The moon waned. But the stars came out, and the 
ripples caught them as bright marvels ; they hinted 
deeper, steadier glories yet to be revealed. But the 
stars set. 

At length a Poet reclined on its bank and sang to it : 

" Sweet Streamlet! What a bright life must have 
been yours ! What flowers must have fringed your 
gliding way, what rosy clouds you have reflected, what 
lilies you have nourished, what stars have risen to 
tell you their secrets ere they have set ! You have 
done brave work. too. You have watered the meadow 



FIGURES. 117 

and made it wave with grain ; you have conspired 
with the sun to ripen the harvest, and when matured 
you have helped to turn it into bread. Not for any 
one of these joys and uses w^ere you made, but for all ! 
So may the stream of ray life run on, with varied 
happiness and helpfulness, not anxious about the un- 
known Sea to which thou and I, fair stream, are tend- 
ing." 

As the Streamlet listened, all the beauties it had 
known shone out again, and they all clustered — 
dancing light, rosy cloud, golden moon and serene 
stars — around the great sorrow it had encountered, 
the obstruction which had ground grain for man ; for 
that, transfigured in the Poet's song, seemed the hap- 
piest experience of all. Moncure D. Conway. 

From " St. Nicholas." By permission Century Pub. Co. 



REFERENCES. 

Elements of Rhetoric. De Mille. 
Practical Rhetoric. Clark. 
Complete Rhetoric. Welsh. 
Principles of Rhetoric. A. S. Hill. 



118 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



CFAPTER Y. 

COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OP ENGLISH. 

Syntax is the art of arranging words in a sentence, 
so as to show their true grammatical relations. 

A Solecism is a violation of the rules of Syntax. 
The word is derived from the name of the Soli, a tribe 
who once lived in Attica. Having moved to Cilicia in 
Asia Minor, where they founded a colony, they gradu- 
ally lost the purity of their language. 

Solecisms are often called examples of False Syntax. 
It must be remembered that " Use is the law of lan- 
guage." The usage of the best English writers and 
speakers of any age determines what is, in that age, 
regarded as " good English." But you must not forget 
that the language is growing. What was thought to be 
correct and elegant English, in the time of Shakespeare 
and Milton, contains many expressions which are now 
regarded as solecisms. So too, in our translation of the 
Bible you find constructions which are not now in good 
usage, though they were at the time when the transla- 
tion was made. 

Even at the present time, there are many unsettled 
questions as to the correctness of certain forms of 
speech. It is not wise, therefore, to say that some 
of these expressions which are commonly regarded as 
errors are positively wrong. The best general rule that 



COMMON ERRORS. 119 

can be given is, Observe the usage of the most careful 
writers and speakers of the present time. 

The following are some of the rules which are com- 
monly violated. Correct the examples under each rule, 
stating clearly the reason for each correction. 

The Nominative Case and the Verh. 

A finite verb must agree in person and number with 
its subject. 

Remember that each, every, no, many a, either, and 
neither, etc., are all singular in idea, since they refer to 
persons or things considered separately. 

1 . Every train and steamboat were crowded to their utmost 

capacit} T . 

2. Many a man have sad recollections of his youth. 

3. No wife, no mother, no child, were there to comfort him. 

4. Either you or I are in the wrong. 

5. The Savannah and James empties into the Atlantic. 

6. Of what nationality are each of your parents? 

7. Is not the Danube and the Rhine noted for their scenery . 

8. When does your father and mother come home? 

9. Every one of the men say the same thing. 

10. I was on one side of the street and you was on the other. 

Singular Subject followed by Adjunct containing 
Plural Noun. 

When the singular subject of a sentence is immedi- 
ately followed by an adjunct containing a plural noun, 
the verb must not be made plural. 

1. A sojourn of five years in the wilds of Africa have 

strengthened these opinions. 

2. The chirping of the sparrows announce the early dawn. 



120 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. Not a line of the lectures were written beforehand. 

4. The introduction of such beverages as tea and coffee 

have not been without their effects. 

5. The severity of the symptoms were no criterion of the 

danger of the disease. 

6. A box of figs were sent us for Christmas. 

Mistakes in Number. 

1. The servant took up the ashes 1 and carried it out. 

2. Oats is now being harvested. 

3. " Horses " are of the plural number because they denote 

more than one. 

4. He understands all the minutia of geology. 

5. A disagreeable effluvia comes from the neighboring 

swamp. 

6. Are there any news 2 in the city? 

7. Great pains 2 were taken to preserve secrecy. 

8. The whereabouts 2 of his family are not known. 

9. The wages 2 of sin are death. 

10. Optics 2 are an essential branch of the science. 

11. About the organ are carved lovely flowers and cherubims. 

12. My answer is 0.0275 square miles. 

13. Mr. Brown is an alumni of Yale College. 

14. Is my scissors 1 in your work-basket? 

15. " The Adventures of Captain Bonneville" were written 

by Washington Irving. 

16. We looked down upon broad plains and fertile vallies. 

17. These quaintly carved pieces of ivory are said to be 

talismen such as are used by the Mussulmen. 

18. Use two cupsful of sugar and three spoonsful of baking- 

powder. 

19. The Mr. Harper's called on the Dr. Browns and on the 

Miss Clarks. 
1 Used only in the plural. 2 Plural in form, but singular in idea. 



COMMON ERRORS. 121 

20. Dot your Is, and cross your Ts, and don't use too many 

ands. 

21. Seven man-servants belonged to the castle. 

22. The rainbow is a strange and inspiring phenomena. 

23. The measles are not commonly a dangerous disease. 

24. Avoid the careless use of parenthesises. 

Possessive Case before a Participle. 

The possessive case of the noun should precede the 
participle, where the noun represents the active agent. 

1 . Her knowledge of the Emperor having left nothing to 

her son induced her to make such a will. 

2. Lady Macbeth walking in her sleep is an incident full 

of tragic horror. 

3. You remember Mary having painted a tea set for her 

sister, do you not? 

4. The story of Rip Van Winkle awakening is graphically 

told. 

5. I cannot bear to think of the children being left alone 

in the cold world. 

Nominative Case of Pronouns. 

The subject of a finite verb should be in the nomina- 
tive case. 

1. Whom did you say called this afternoon? 

2. What were you and him talking about? 

3. The old man left his fortune to those whom he thought 

were his friends. 

4. Whom do you think I am? 

5. My brother did fully as well as me. 

6. Her mother and her have gone to the city. 



122 LESSONS IN ENGLISH, 

7. I can write better than him. 

8. Them that seek shall find. 

9. Such persons as him are not fit associates. 

Possessive Case. 

All nouns in the singular number and all nouns in the 
plural except those ending in s, form the possessive by 
the addition of the apostrophe and the letter s. Plural 
nouns ending in 8 add the apostrophe only. 

Distinguish carefully between the plural number and 
the possessive case. 

1. These events happened in the reign of the Charles's. 

2. This witnesses statements are not to be questioned. 

3. We have just bought a copy of Burns' poems and a set 

of Dickens' works. 

4. Dr. Arnold was the master of the famous boy's school 

at Rugby. 

5. The Perkins's are a most interesting family, but I prefer 

to visit at the Hastings. 

6. King Charles' reign was a brief and troubled one. 

7. You all remember the foxes remark about the grapes. 

8. Nineveh was an exceeding great city of three days 

journey. 

9. The three countess's were invited to the princess' recep- 

tion. 
10. The package was sent by Adamses Express Company. 

Such expressions as " for goodness' sake," and " for 
Jesus' sake," are among the few exceptions to the rule 
quoted above. 

II. If several possessive nouns refer to the same noun 
and are connected by and, the possessive sign should be 
used with the last noun only. 



COMMON ERRORS. 123 

1. They have a special sale of laces at Bolton's and Neely's 

large store. 

2. Peter's and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 

3. Ladie's and Gent's Restaurant. 

4. Men, women's, and children's shoes for sale here. 

5. Bryant's and Stratton's Business Manual. 

III. If common possession is not implied, or if some 
disjunctive word is used between the possessive terms, 
each one should take the sign of the possessive case. 

1. Mr. Grant and Mr. Allen's houses were both struck by 

lightning during yesterday's storm. 

2. Grant's and Allen's store was burned. 

3. She refused to listen to her parents or her teacher's 

advice. 

4. He accepted neither the skeptic nor the clergyman's 

view of religion. 

5. Is that a boy or a girl's voice that I hear? 

IV. For the sake of euphony, possession is often 
more elegantly expressed by the use of the prepo- 
sition of. 

1. Leonidas's soldiers held the pass at Thermopylae. 

2. England and France's armies fought at Waterloo. 

3. Xerxes's death prevented another invasion of Greece. 

4. It was Dr. Franklin the great philosopher's discovery. 

5. Demosthenes's orations are marvels of eloquence. 

V. Sometimes the possessive sign is needed in addi- 
tion to the possessive of. 

1 . Have you seen this book of my friend Story ? 

2. Captain Brown was a friend of General Grant. 

3. " So to speak " is a pet phrase of our minister. 



124 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Possessive Case of Pronouns. 

Personal pronouns in the possessive case never take 
the apostrophe. 

Distinguish between itfs, the contraction of it is, and 
its, the personal pronoun. 

1. Your's respectfully. 

2. How do you know when its coming? 

3. Those books are their's, but her's and our's are lost. 

4. I will not accept any advice of their's. 

5. Its a bird and its wing is broken. 

The pronouns one, other, and another form their pos- 
sessives regularly. 

1 . Ones first duty is .the one that lies nearest. 

2. They wrung each others hands at parting. 

3. We should rejoice for others happiness and grieve for 

others woes. 

4. Enoch Arden returned to his home to find his wife 

anothers. 

Case of the Pronoun after the Verb to be. 

The verb to be takes the same case of the pronoun 
after it as before it. 

Ex. I supposed it [obj.] to be her [obj.]. 

I supposed that it [nom.] was she [nom.]. 

1 . Do you think it was him ? 

2. It might have been him who did it. 

3. Is it me you wish to see? 

4. Who do you take me to be? 

5. If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be me and 

it will not be she. 



COMMON ERRORS. 125 

6. It could not have been us that he meant. 

7. I do not know whether those strangers are the Grahams, 

but I supposed it was them. 

8. Who is there ? It's only me. 

Pronoun used before a Participle., 

The possessive case of the pronoun should precede a 
participle used as a noun. 

1. The fact of them being in the neighborhood was very 

suspicious. 

2. What do you think of me studying Latin? 

3. His father was opposed to him entering the army. 

4. I rely on you coming in good season. 

5. The pupil's progress will depend largely upon him being 

diligent in practice. 

Pronoun and Antecedent. 

The pronoun should agree with its antecedent in 
gender, person, and number. 

Note. It should be mentioned that this is one of the " disputed 
points." 

1. Has everybody performed their examples? 

2. If any one is there, let them answer. 

3. The teacher will not allow any one to do as they please. 

4. The country will be ruined by the profligacy of their 

nobles. 

5. Let each man do their own work. 

6. A person who is resolute and energetic is apt to succeed 

in their undertakings. 

7. Every plant and every tree produces others after their 

kind. 



126 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

8. Not an officer, not a soldier, and not a camp-follower 

escaped permanent injury to their health. 

9. Everybody has reflections which they think worth re- 

cording. 

10. Each of the children have their own peculiar traits. 

11. The army being abandoned by its leader, pursued mean- 

while their miserable march. 

12. The hen looked very disconsolate when its brood rushed 

into the water. 

Note that each, every, anybody, everybody, nobody, 
and somebody refer to individuals considered separately; 
and are, therefore, singular in idea. 

Number — Relative Pronoun. 

The relative pronoun should agree in number with 
its antecedent. This rule is frequently violated in such 
sentences as the following : — 

4 6 One of the earliest names that lives [live] in English 
Literature is that of Chaucer." 

That is plural, because its antecedent, names, is plural. 
The verb should, therefore, be plural, to agree with its 
subject that. 1 

1. One of the most brilliant meteors that has ever been 

seen in this country shot through the sky last night. 

2. We now come to consider one of the greatest evils that 

afflicts poor human nature. 

3. This strawberry is one of those varieties that requires 

careful culture. 

1 Authorities differ concerning this construction. 



COMMON ERRORS. 127 

4. My wife is one of the few women who never neglects 

an opportunity for doing good. 

5. It is one of the most valuable books that has ever issued 

from the press. 

Who, Which, and ^hat. 

The relative who is applied to persons ; which, to all 
other objects; and that, to either persons or things. 
That is more restrictive than who or which. 

The expression, " Our Father which art in heaven " 
must not be regarded as a violation of this rule. The 
pronoun who did not come into the language until the 
seventeenth century. 

1. That was the largest congregation which ever gathered 

in the church. 

2 . Was it you or the wind who shut the door ? 

3. Is that the dog whom you bought of Fred? 

4. It was the Colonel's horse, and not himself, who fell in 

the combat. / 

5. There is scarcely a day which does not bring new proof 

of God's goodness. 

6. It was necessity which taught me to be a geologist. 

7. Those which are rich should assist the poor. 

Nominative Case — Relative Pronouns. 

Whom is often incorrectly used for ivho, in such sen- 
tences as this : — 

" I saw the man whom we thought was dead." 

If we omit the intermediate clause we thought, the 
sentence reads, We saw the man whom was dead. It is 



m 



128 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

evident now that the relative pronoun is the subject of 
was. It should, therefore, be who instead of whom. 

This is another disputed point. In some sentences, 
it is difficult to tell whether the pronoun should be 
who or whom. For example : — 

We met Mr. and Mrs. Murray, ^hom we thought [to be] 

very delightful people. 
We met Mr. and Mrs. Murray, ivho we thought [were] 

very delightful people. 

1. He gave his property to those whom he thought were 

his friends. 

2. The oldest daughter married a banker whom they say is 

very wealthy. 

3. Ada was annoyed by the presence of Mr. Foster, whom, 

her mother insisted, was a very handsome man. 

4. Johnny wants to have a Man Friday, whom he thinks 

would be better than a dog and almost as good as a 
pony. 

The Objective Case. 

The object of a transitive verb or of a preposition 
should be in the objective case. 

1. Who do you take me for? 

2. Please pass the bread to Charlie and I. 

3. Between you and I, I don't believe a word of it. 

4. Let he who made thee answer that. 

5. Who are you writing to? 

6. Mother went with Father and I. 

7. Who can I trust, if not he? 

8. Let thou and I the battle try. 

9. Who does she look like? 

10. We did not tell her who the valentine came from. 



COMMON ERRORS. 129 

To as the Sign of the Infinitive. 

I. To, the sign of the infinitive, should not be sep- 
arated from the verb by any intervening word. 

Some good authorities insist that it is not only cor- 
rect to separate to from the verb, but that such a con- 
struction adds to the force of the sentence. In some 
sentences, however, it seems better to follow the rule. 

1. To better and more forcibly illustrate the truth, he 

referred to the case of Brockby. 

2. A pure heart is necessary if we wish to thoroughly enjoy 

the beauties of nature. 

3. To nobly bear is braver than to rashly dare. 

4. To calmly face disaster and death requires real courage. 

5. You must not expect to always have things as you 

would like to have them. 

6. We were to cautiously and quickly advance to the hill 

above. 

II. The active verbs bid, dare, let, hear, need, feel, 
make, and see, are usually followed by the infinitive 
without the to. 

In which of the following sentences is the to needed? 

1. I dare to say you are right. 

2. They were bidden come from the highways and hedges. 

3. The rose felt a gentle breeze to fan her cheek. 

4. Then we saw the silver moon to rise from a bank of clouds. 

5. Bessie bids fair to be as tall as her mother. 

6. I dared him to prove his assertion. 

7. You cannot see to write in this dark room. 

8. I feel it to be my duty to warn you of j-our danger. 

9. How darest thou to name my daughter? 

10. The old man was never seen give a cent to charity. 



130 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

III. The sign of the infinitive is often omitted where 
it should be used. 

1. Try and remember what you did with my thimble. 

2. Will you please excuse my son for absence yesterday? 1 

3. It is injudicious to praise or blame a child without good 

reason. 

4. "No," said the soldier, "we are ready to die, not 

yield." x 

5. In order to justify this extraordinary measure and dis- 

tract public attention from the real causes, the clubs 
tried to shift the blame to the players. 

Present and Perfect Infinitive. 

"After a verb in the past tense, use the perfect infini- 
tive only when the act or state indicated by the in- 
finitive is prior to that expressed by the principal verb." 

1. We did no more than it was our dutj^ to have done. 

2. I meant to have written the answer to-morrow. 

3. Mr. Fogg intended to have seen for himself how the 

work was progressing. 

4. Pythagoras is supposed to be born more than five hun- 

dred years before Christ. 

5. It was the policeman's duty to have arrested the burglar. 

6. I expected to have written on that subject. 

7. I forgot to have mentioned the fact. 

8. It was my intention to have collected many specimens. 

Don't, in the Third Person Singular. 

It should be remembered that donH is a contraction 
of do not, and that it should be used only where it may 
be substituted for do not. 

1 Another disputed point. 



COMMON ERRORS. 131 

1st per. I do not. we do not. 

2d " you do not. you do not. 

3d " he, she or it does not. they do not. 

"He don't" is, therefore, wrong. The proper con- 
traction is doesn't. Remember, also, that isn't and aren't 
are the proper contractions for is not and are not. Aint 
should never be used. 

1. It don't seem possible that we have been here six weeks. 

2. He don't impress me favorably. 

3. The captain can afford to be cheerful. He don't know 

what it is to be seasick. 

4. Our teacher don't have to work very hard. 

5. Don't it seem strange that Father don't write? 
G. I aint a bit sorry that they aint coming. 

Mistakes in Tense. 

The present tense should be used in expressing pres- 
ent facts and unchangeable truths. 

1 . Our teacher told us that the air was made up of two gases. 

2. He tried to impress upon our minds the truth that hon- 

esty was the best policy. 

3. What did you say this lady's name was? 

4. I could not remember where Lake Como was situated. 

5. What church was that which we passed this afternoon? 

6. Is my face sun-burned? I should say that it was. 

7. Dr. Johnson said of knowledge that it was of two kinds. 

We either knew a thing or we knew where it could be 
found. 

The Past Tense and the Perfect Participle. 

Grive the principal parts of each verb. 

1. She done the best she knew how. 

2. Coal must have went up since last week. 



132 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. Have you broke any of the rules? 

4. The train run at terrific speed. 

5. They all drunk the health of the president. 

6. The choir sung a beautiful anthem. 1 

7. All the restraints of home had been shook off long 

before. 

8. The children beseeched for a holiday. 

9. A better day for the journey could not have been chose. 

10. His mother had wrote a letter in his behalf. 

11. I begun to be frightened. 1 

12. My daughter has took the first prize. 

13. He wishes now that he hadn't went. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

"Where & future contingency, or doubt, or indecision, 
or a wish, is expressed, the verb should be in the sub- 
junctive mood; but where a conditional circumstance 
which is not future is expressed, the verb should be in 
the indicative." 

Ex. He will not be pardoned unless he repent. (Subj.) 
If he knows the way, he does not need a guide. (Indie.) 

It should be noticed that the distinction between the 
subjunctive and the indicative is less and less observed. 
Indeed, some authorities assert that there is no true 
subjunctive in English. 

1. If John were satisfied, why should she be discontented? 

2. And so would I, if I was he. 

3. I met a certain lady whom I could name if it was neces- 

sary. 

4. I wish my mother was here. 

1 If there are two forms for the past tense of a verb, it is better to 
choose the one which is not like the participle. 



COMMON ERRORS. 133 

5. Whether the book were ever published, I do not know. 

6. Were he still disposed to go, he may take my horse this 

afternoon. 

7. Whether the fine dust from the eruption of a volcano 

were the cause of the red glow in our sky or not we 
may never be able to show positively. 

The Verb Ought. 

Ought is a defective vorb, used only in the present 
and the past tense. The present tense should be fol- 
lowed by the present infinitive ; the past tense, by the 
perfect infinitive. 

1. John ought to go to work yesterday. 

2. I think he ought to have gone to-morrow. 

3. You hadn't ought to done it. 

4. We have done many things that we hadn't ought to done 

and left undone many things that we ought to do. 

The Article. 

I. The article a should be used before all words be- 
ginning with a consonant sound, except words of more 
than two syllables beginning with h and having either 
a primary or a secondary accent on the second syllable. 
An should be used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound or a silent h. 

1. Next week's issue of Harper's Weekly is to contain a 

historical sketch of President Cleveland. 

2. Such an one has before him an high and honorable career. 

(One begins with the sound of w.) 

3. I cannot entertain, for a moment, such a hypothesis 

as that. 



134 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. James Freeman Clarke is the pastor of an Unitarian 

church in Boston. ( Unitarian begins with the sound 
of y.) 

5. Many an hypocritical tear was shed. 

6. May my last sun look down upon an united and happy 

people. 

7. Uriah Heep professed to have an humble spirit. 

8. He frequently said, "lama umble person." 

II. The article should not be used between the pos- 
sessive case and the substantive word or phrase which 
it governs. 

1. Hawthorne's " The Scarlet Letter" made him famous 

as a novelist. 

2. We have begun to read Irving's " The Sketch Book." 

3. Mark Twain's U A Tramp Abroad" is very amusing. 

III. The article should be used before each of sev- 
eral expressions in the same construction when they 
refer to persons or things which must be considered 
separately. 

1. The society appointed three new officers, a president, 

secretary, and treasurer. 

2. Mr. Sharpe is the president, and Mr. Carey secretary 

and treasurer. 

3. The English language derives many words from the 

Latin, French, Italian, and Greek. 

4. To the Olympic festivals came the athlete, soldier, 

statesman, scholar, and poet. 

5. This question interests alike the teacher and pupil. 

6. Harry has a black and white dog, a black and a white 

dog. How many dogs has he? 

7. There are two kinds of articles : the definite and in- 

definite. 



COMMON ERRORS. 135 

IV. The article is not needed before a word taken in 
a general sense, or used simply as a name. 

1. I did not think that he was that sort of a boy. 

2. What species of a violet is this yellow one? 

3. He does not deserve the name of a gentleman. 

4. I will not call him a villain, because that would be un- 

parliamentary. 

5. Washington Irving died of the heart disease. 

6. The Connecticut and the Mississippi are names from 

the Indian dialects. 

7. Brutus received the title of a consul. 

V. The article should be used before the present 
participle when the participle is immediately followed 
by of. It is often better to omit both article and prep- 
osition. 

1. Great benefits may be derived from reading of good 

books. 

2. A wise teacher will avoid the showing any partiality. 

3. To thee death is not so much as lifting of a latch. 

4. Youth is the time for forming of the character. 

5. He read the parable about sowing of the seed. 

6. "In building of chaises, I tell you what, 

There is always somewhere a weakest spot." 

VI. The defirtite article should be used when we 
wish to refer to a class as a whole, or to one object as 
the representative of a class. 

1. A rose is my favorite flower. 

2. We will now consider that noble animal, a horse. 

3. An owl is a bird of wisdom. 

4. A whole is greater than any of its parts. 

5. The lions are the kings of beasts. 



136 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

VII. When two or more adjectives qualify the same 
noun, the article should precede each adjective if the 
noun is singular, but only the first if the noun is plural. 

1. The third and fourth page are to be learned. 

2. Review the first and the second pages. 

3. The Assyrian and the Egyptian kingdoms were the 

greatest powers of the ancient world. 

4. There is a marked difference between the old and the 

new versions of the Scriptures. 

5. Notice how this word differs from the Latin and Greek 

form expressing the same idea. 

Adjectives which imply Number. 

Adjectives should agree in number with the nouns 
which they qualify. 

1. Do you like those sort of collars? 

2. Those kind of trees are evergreen. 

3. You have been asleep this two hours. 

4. His wife died two year ago. 

5. He is five foot nine inches high. 

6. He measured the lot with a ten feet pole. 

7. I have a sixty inches tape measure. 

Note. In the last two sentences, the expressions ten-foot and 
sixty-inch are to be regarded as compound adjectives. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

If only two persons or things are compared, it is bet- 
ter to use the comparative degree of the adjective ; if 
more than two, the superlative. 

1. Of two evils, choose the least. 

2. My mother is the elder of five sisters. 



COMMON ERRORS. 137 

3. Which is the best of the two ? 

4. The smallest of the twins is the prettiest. 

5. Which is most desirable, health or wealth? 

Faulty Comparisons. 

I. When comparison between a particular term and 
the rest of a class to which it belongs is expressed by 
the comparative degree of the adjective, the particular 
term must always be excluded from the class with which 
it is compared. This may commonly be done by insert- 
ing the word other. 

1. Iron is more useful than all the metals. 

2. Our new minister is more eloquent than any preacher 

we ever had. 

3. This book of letters is more interesting to me than any 

book of human composition. 

4. John is more mischievous than any boy in the world. 

5. Probably Lord Halifax is better versed in the history of 

that period than any man that ever lived. 

6. London is more crowded than any city in Great Britain. 

II. When the superlative degree is used, the particu- 
lar term must always be included in the class of things 
with which the comparison is made. 

1. St. Paul's is the greatest of all other London churches. 

2. This picture is, of all others, the most fascinating to me. 

3. The climate of Colorado is said to be the healthiest of 

any other in the United States. 

4. Being without a guide, we took a wrong path, used only 

by the shepherds, and certainly the steepest I ever 
climbed before. 

5. Of all other beings, man certainly has the greatest 

reason for gratitude. 



138 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

6. A fondness for display is of all other follies the most 

ridiculous. 

7. China has the greatest population of any other country 

on the globe. 

Adverbs used for Adjectives. 

After the verbs be, look, taste, smell, feel, seem, and a 
few others, use an adjective to express quality or state 
of the subject or object, and an adverb to express the 
manner of the action. 

1. The apples stewed tenderly. 

2. The beautiful roses smell so sweetly. 

3. She seems amiably enough. 

4. How sourly these currants taste ! 

5. She looked cold and scornful upon his offer. 

6. The cow looked as queerly as cows generally do when 

they try to run. 

7. How beautifully the river appears in the moonlight ! 

8. Doesn't Bertha look sweetly with her hair braided? 

Adjectives used for Adverbs. 

Adverbs limit verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

1. I am exceeding sorry to hear of your trouble. 

2. Agreeable to m}' promise, I now write. 

3. You behaved very improper. 

4. She was scarce sensible of what was going on around 

her. 

5. I am tolerable well, thank you. 

6. We are not near through our work. 

7. Speak slow and distinct. 

8. We ought to value our privileges higher- 



COMMON ERRORS. 139 

Double Negatives. 

Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. 

1. I don't know nothing about your affairs. 

2. Will wasn't at the lecture, I don't think. 

3. She says she don't never use three eggs for her paddings. 

4. Neither you nor nobody else ever saw such a sight. 

5. He had no home nor friends. 1 

Allied to these sentences are the following : — - 

6. I have not had hardly a moment's time since I received 

your letter. 

7. We cannot have but one week's vacation. 

8. The train will not stop only when the bell rings. 

Either — Or ; Neither — Nor. 

Or should never be used as the correlative of neither. 
The correlatives should occupy corresponding positions 
in the sentence. For example, either must not precede 
a verb and or a noun, as in the sentence, " Jennie can 
either write prose or poetry. The proper form is, Jennie 
can write either prose or poetry. 

1. We are neither acquainted with the doctor or his family. 

2. He was neither fitted by abilities nor disposition to carry 

out the wishes of his mother and sister. 

3. In estimating the labors of the German Reformer, we 

must neither forget the temper of the man nor the age 
in which he lived. 

4. She neither moved, spoke, or wept during all those sad days. 

5. Processions of priests have been, for several days past, 

praying for rain, but the gods are either angry or nature 
too powerful. 

6. Neither one or the other has the least chance of success. 

1 Whether or or nor should be used after no, not, and never, is one of 
the disputed points. 



140 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED. 
Shall and Will. 

GENERAL RULES. 

I. To express futurity, use shall in the first person, 
and will in the second and third. 

1st Per. I shall be sixteen in June. (Simply foretells.) 
tc tt When shall I come to see you? (Inquires con- 
cerning the wish or intention of another.) 
2d Per. You will have a warm day for your journey. (Fore- 
tells.) 
" " You will report at headquarters. (Expresses an 

official command.) 
u u will you do me the favor to inquire? (Implies 
wish or desire on the part of the speaker.) 
3d Per. He will repent of his action. (Foretells.) 
u " Will she receive us kindly? (Inquires concerning 
will or purpose of another.) 

II. To express promise, purpose, determination, ob- 
ligation, or inevitable action which the speaker means 
to control, use will in the first person, and shall in the 
second and third. 

1st Per. I will meet you at the church. (Expresses a 
promise.) 
u u J w [\\ k e obeyed. (Expresses determination.) 
" " Which will I choose? (Which do you think will 

be my choice?) 
" " Which shall I choose? (Which would you advise 
me to choose?) 
2d Per. You shall repent of this. (Expresses a threat.) 
u " Thou shalt do no murder. (Expresses a command.) 



COMMON ERRORS. 141 

2d Per. You shall have a new pencil to-morrow. (Ex- 
presses a promise.) 

u " Shall you stay at home this evening? (Is it your 
purpose to stay at home ?) 
3d Per. She shall have an apple if she is a good girl. 
(Promises.) 

" " He shall come down like rain upon the mown grass. 
(Prophesies an event which is beyond the con- 
trol of the speaker.) 

" " Shall he bring a pail of water? (Do you wish him 
to bring it ?) 

The difference between should and would is mainly 
the same as that between shall and will. 

Would that I were rich ! (Expresses a wish.) 
You should not use such language. (Expresses duty.) 
She would start, in spite of the rain. (Expresses deter- 
mination.) 

Grandfather would sit all day, thinking of old times. 
(Expresses custom.) 
I would go, if I had time. (Conditional assertion.) 
If he should call, tell him that I could not wait for him. 
(Dependent action.) 

Correct the following sentences : — 

1 . Will I put more wood into the stove ? 

2. I will be drowned ; nobody shall help me. 

3. Thou wilt not steal. 

4. Shall you be a candidate? (Is it your will?) 

5. Will you be elected? (Do you think so?) 

6. I would like to know who he is. * 

7. When will we three meet again? 

8. I was afraid she should lose it. 

9. Will I go with you? 



142 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

10. I insist that the pupils will be orderly and attentive. 

11. If we examine with minuteness the falling snow, we 

will observe that each flake consists of a number of 
exceedingly delicate particles of ice. 

Can and May. 

Can should be used to express power or possibility ; 
may, to express permission or probability. A similar 
distinction should be made between could and might. 

1. Can I speak to my seat-mate? 

2. May mortal man be more just than God? 

3. Can I eat more of these chocolate creams? 

4. Mother said I could invite some of my friends to tea. 

5. I wish I might do more for the poor, but I have not 

much to give. 

6. I wish we could see more of each other, but our home 

duties forbid. 

7. Can I use a sheet of this paper? 

Sit and Set. 

Set is commonly active, and means to place in position. 
Sit is, in most senses, a neuter verb. 





PRINCIPAL PARTS. 




Pres. 


Past. Pres. Part. 


Perf. Part, 


Sit. 


Sat. Sitting. 


Sat. 


Set. 


Set. Setting. 


Set. 



1 . Your coat doesn't set well across the shoulders. 

2. If you are going to do your work, why don't you sit 

about it? 

3. Hawthorne kept many note-books, in which he sat down 

things that he wished to remember. 



COMMON ERRORS. 143 

4. Come in and set awhile, neighbor. 

5. He always sat apart one-tenth of his income to give to 

the Lord. 

6. Fanny set up until midnight to write her composition. 

7. She is cross as a setting hen, in consequence. 

8. Mother sot in the setting-room. 

9. Father set old Speckle on thirteen eggs and there she 

has set ever since. 

10. Mrs. Foster set for her portrait when she was in the 

city. 

11. Captain Barnes showed us how the tide sits in up the 

creek. 

12. How long has the court been setting? 

Lie and Lay. 

Lie is an intransitive verb, and means to recline ; also 
to tell a falsehood. 

Lay is transitive, and means to put in position, to place. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres. Past. Pres. Part. Perf. Part. 

Lie, to recline. Lie. La}'. Lying. Lain. 

Lie, to tell a falsehood. Lie. Lied. Lying. Lied. 

Lay, to place. Lay. Laid. Laying. Laid. 

1. Mamma has laid down on the sofa. 

2. The soldiers had laid on the ground all night. 

3. Why don't you lay down and take a nap? 

4. Lake Champlain lays between Vermont and New York. 

5. What book is that laying on the table? 

6. I lied me down and slept. 

7. Trouble lays heavy on his heart. 

8. The Captain gave the order for the ship to lay to. 



144 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

9. I did not know that } T our son's talent laid in that direc- 
tion. 

10. The Indians had laid in wait for several days. 

11. They were laying in wait for the band of settlers. 

12. The rain has lain the dust. 

Flee, Fly, and Flow. 

Flee, to escape. 

Fly, to soar in the air. 

Flow, to glide like a river. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres. Past. Pres. Part. P erf. Part, 

Flee. Fled. Fleeing. Fled. 

Fly. Flew. Flying. Flown. 

Flow. Flowed. Flowing. Flowed. 

1. The Nile flew over its banks. 

2. A horse will fly from the presence of a camel. 

3. And still the river fled on. 

4. The terrified savages flew to the mountains. 

5. They found that the feathered prisoner had fled. 

Such and So. 

The adjective such is often incorrectly used instead 
of the adverb so. Such may properly precede another 
adjective when it means like this or like these, as in the 
following sentence : — 

" In such arid regions as border upon the desert, rain sel- 
dom falls." 

When tne idea of degree is to be expressed, use so 
before the adjective. 

1. I never knew such a lovely woman as Mrs. Davenport. 



COMMON ERRORS. 145 

2. How could he treat her so harshly and with such need- 

less scorn? 

3. Few countries enjoy such a mild and equable climate. 

4. We must pay some attention to such a high authority 

on such an important matter. 

5. You seldom see such a tall man carry himself with such 

unconscious grace. 

6. So gigantic works as the Pyramids are fit monuments of 

despotic power. 

Their, They're, and There. 

Their is a pronoun ; there, an adverb of place, or an 
introductory adverb. They're is a contraction of they are. 

1. Their shall be no night there. 

2. My parents would not give there consent. 

3. In all there wanderings, they never lost sight of there 

signal -pole. 

4. Their often supposed to be adverbs because of there 

close connection with the verbs. 

5. I won't go if their going to be there. 

Aught, Ought, and Naught. 

Aught is a noun, meaning anything. 
Ought is a verb, implying duty. 
Naught is a noun, meaning nothing. 

1. The figures are seven, aught, three, five. 

2. I haven't naught to give you. 

3. Hast thou ought against thy neighbor? 

4. You aught to have another ought in your minuend. 

5. Have you ought to make you proud and boastful? 

6. It may be poison for ought I know. 

7. We aught not to speak against our neighbors. 



146 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

To, Too, and Two. 

To is a preposition; also the sign of the infinitive. 
Too is an adverb of degree, addition, or excess. 
Two is a numeral adjective. 

1. Hattie says she will join the class if we are going too. 

2. To late ! to late ! ye cannot enter now. 

3. These too are to dark, but the other too are very suit- 

able. 

4. I should say that you have too to many. 

5. You may go if you wish too. 

6. We need not be afraid of doing to much to help others. 

7. Please see that the door is shut too. 

8. u Then . . .," he said, "I cannot believe that she would 

be . . . proud . . . work for . . . such children." 

Each other and One another. 

Each other should be used with reference to two per- 
sons or things ; one another, with reference to more than 
two. A similar distinction should be made between 
either and any, and between neither and none. 

1. Let two straight lines cut one another. 

2. Parents like to see their children kind to each other. 

3. Two negatives in English destroy one another. 

4. The two John Smiths are not related to one another. 

5. I do not admire either of the three girls. 

6. Neither of the twelve jurors could be induced to believe 

the prisoner guilty. 

Most and Almost. 

Use almost whenever nearly may be used in its place. 
Use most in the sense of the greater number or quantity. 



COMMON ERKOBS. 147 

1. The poor old lady's money is most gone. 

2. We most always visit here in the summer. 

3. Most all species of flowers are attractive to the eye. 

4. My work is most done, and I am most tired out. 

5. Most everybody gossips more or less. 

6. You will find me at home most any time. 

Except, Without, and Unless. 

The prepositions except and without are often used 
where the conjunction unless is the proper word. Use 
except and without when a direct object follows. 

Ex. I will not go without my money. 
We all went except Mary. 

Use unless when a dependent clause follows the con- 
junction. 

1. Mother will not let us go without it stops raining. 

2. Do not write except you feel in the mood for it. 

3. The book has no real merit except its simplicity may be 

regarded as a charm. 

4. They could not hear the guns without the wind blew from 

the west. 

5. Except you promise to do better, you must lose your 

holiday. 

Lake and As. 

In comparisons, use like when it may properly be fol- 
lowed by to. 

Ex. " The corolla of the mint looks like [to] the mouth 
of an animal." 

Use as when a verb follows in close connection. 
Ex. I wish you would do as your sister does. 



148 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

1. I wish I could write like our teacher can. 

2. Nobody will miss Mother like I shall. 

3. It is like it was to be a king when men struggled among 

themselves who should be a king. 

4. Charlie is a timid, nervous child, like his father was. 

5. If each man would only add his mite, like the pilgrim 

adds his stone to the heap in the desert, the temple 
would soon rise and show its fair proportions to the 
world. 

Beside and Besides. 

Beside is a preposition, meaning by the side of 
Besides is commonly an adverb of excess. 
Besides is often incorrectly used for except. 

1. No one beside the immediate family was present at the 

funeral. 

2. Beside, we cannot be sure that that is the meaning. 

3. That frail little form was dearer to her than all the world 

beside. 

4. Besides the road rose the chimney of a ruined house. 

5. There are several houses beside that three miles farther 

on towards Lenox. 

Some, Something, and Somewhat. 

Some is an adjective ; something is a noun ; somewhat, 
an adverb of degree. 

Sort of and hind of are commonly used instead of 
somewhat or rather. 

1. Jennie looks something like her mother. 

2. She feels some better this morning. 

3. I am kind of sorry that I did not take your advice. 

4. This braid will be sort of pretty put on something like a 

Grecian chain. 



COMMON ERRORS. 149 

5. We came back something sooner than we intended. 

6. Are yon tired after your walk? Yes, I'm some tired. 

7. She was some provoked at my plain speaking. 

In and Into. 

Into should be used where there is the idea of motion ; 
in, where there is the idea of rest. 

1. My son lives in Lewisboro, into a little white house. 

2. Put some corn in the measure and carry it in the barn. 

3. She threw herself in her old rocker and rocked vigor- 

ously for some minutes. 

4. The factory, two dwelling-houses, and an adjoining shed 

were blown to fragments. 

5. The large sheets of tin are then cut in squares and tri- 

angles. 

Ont<v On to, and Upon, 

Onto is not a good English word. Use upon unless 
forward motion is suggested. 

1. "Well," said Harry, " if you don't hurry, the shower 

will be onto you." 

2. Did your friends go onto the mountain or merely view it 

from the fort? 

3. They went onto the next village that night. 

4. This genius has written all of the ninety-first Psalm onto 

a common postal card. 

5. Applique embroidery is made by cutting out ornamental 

figures and putting them onto velvet or other material. 

Between and Among*. 

Between (by twain) should be used in relation to two 
objects, either of which may be plural in form. Where 



150 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

more than two are spoken of, among should be used 
instead. 

Notice, also, the use of "between each" instead of 
between each two, before each, or after each. 

1. No little ill-will was stirred up between the various races 

— English, French, Scotch, and Irish — who inhabited 
Canada. 

2. Two thousand dollars were divided between the five 

children. 

3. Between each row of pear-trees are planted plum-trees. 

4. Leave a blank line between each of your answers to the 

examination questions. 

5. St. Paul says, you know, that we must be at peace be- 

tween ourselves. 

6. This arrangement sandwiches a sermon or a biblical 

lecture between each chapter of a story. 

Good and Well. 

Good is always a noun or an adjective. Well is com- 
monly an adverb, though it may be an adjective, as in 
the sentence, " He has not had a well day in five years." 

1. Your buttonholes are done very good. It is good to 

know how to do such things. 

2. That cake looks well. That dress fits good. 

3. How is your health? Very well, I thank you. 

4. Little Susie behaves very good in church. 

5. How does this verse sound? Very good, I should say. 

Real and Very. 

Real is an adjective, meaning true, genuine ; as real 
sympathy, real point lace. It is often wrongly used in 
place of very, or extremely, and sometimes in place of 
the adverb really. 



COMMON ERRORS. 151 

1. Our eoachman is real sick, and the doctor seems real 

anxious about his case. 

2. Are you real angry with me? I didn't think you would 

be. 

3. Most people think that lawn tennis is a real healthy 

game. 

4. Is this stone in your ring really amethyst? 

5. Though a real homely little woman, she stood between 

his genius and the rough world like an angel with a 
flaming sword. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXEKOISES. 
No. 1. 

1. Us girls are getting up a cooking club. 

2. Mathematics are very difficult for me. 

3. Your 4s look just like 7s. 

4. Any one of these two roads will take you to town. 

5. That style of warfare is, of all others, the most barbarous. 

6. A placid river winds between the old and new planta- 

tion. 

7. Here is an egg that was lain by the speckled hen. 

8. I found it laying on the ground. 

9. Many a farewell tear were shed. 

10. The sum of these angles are 180°. 

11. What made me think of William Tell was us going by 

the statue of he and his son. 

12. This construction sounds rather harshly. 

13. They look something alike, to. 

14. It is a real pleasant evening, aint it? 

15. You hadn't ought to told of it. 

16. Everybody says they never see such a neat housekeeper. 

17. Which of these ribbons do you prefer — the blue or 

brown ? 



152 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

18. I dare say you have heard of the knight-errants of old. 

19. Whose their? Its only me. 

20. Every one of the passengers tell the same story. 

21. She watches me like a cat watches a mouse. 

22. Of the two bicycles, the smallest is the safest. 

23. Each of them are admirable in their way. 

24. An eagle is the emblem of our glorious Union. 

25. Beauty haunts the depths of the earth and sea, and 

gleams out in the hues of the shell and precious 
stone. 

No. 2. 

1. A British and Yankee skipper were sailing side by side. 

2. Lake Superior is the largest of any lake in the world. 

3 . Six months interest is due, on the first of July. 

4. Scarcely had he spoken than the fairy disappeared. 

5. Teacher, can I please speak to Mary? 

6. Go in the house and lay down on the sofa. 

7. We most always make some mistakes, but not often 

such silly ones. 

8. The poor creature looked wretchedly. 

'9. There are no news from the seat of war. 

10. If any one does not know the reason, they should ask. 

11. He don't know nothing about it. 

12. You done it as good as I could. 

13. No memoranda of the transaction was kept. 

14. Who did the youngest daughter marry? 

15. Truth is greater than us all. 

16. Her eyes were positively blazing, she was that angry. 

17. Have you tore your dress? 

18. Sit down that pan of milk. 

19. How does my dress set across the shoulders? 

20. T-i-o-n are pronounced shun. 

21. What did you say was the capital of Kansas? 

22. Time and tide waits for no man. 



COMMON ERRORS. 153 

23. I have no doubt but what he can help you. 

24. He thinks he knows more than anybody. 

25. All his ancestors were lain in their narrow graves. 

No. 3. 

1. No sovereign was ever so much beloved by his people 

as Edward. 

2. The farm is a long ways from a good market. 

3. His fathers and mothers names were written on the fly- 

leaf of his Bible. 

4. Mrs. Brown has been appointed administrator of her 

husband's estate. 

5. These plants belong to different genuses. 

6. Hold the box up endways and drive the nail sideways. 

7. We reached home safely and happily after all our mis- 

fortunes. 

8. You look as though you have been ill. 

9. I will get the prize by some means or another. 

10. Everything in the universe interlaces with one another. 

11. Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. 

12. That seems to be the most universal opinion. 

13. Don't feel so badly ; it is done good enough. 

14. Every one was dressed alike. 

15. There have been three famous talkers in Great Britain, 

either of which would illustrate m}* remark. 
1-6. Her success is neither the result of system or strategy. 

17. Most any piece of old silk will answer for the lining. 

18. The second book of the iEneid is one of the greatest 

masterpieces that ever was executed by any hand. 

19. The shed is built with twenty-two feet posts. 

20. The number of inhabitants are fully fifty thousand. 

21. No don't I. 

22. The professor can explain all the phenomenon of nature. 



154 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

23. The young merchant worked hard, and by these means 

acquired a fortune. 

24. Four boys were drownded while bathing in the river. 

25. How different this village is to what we expected ! 

No. 4. 

1. Among our saddest losses we count friendships which 

we once believed would never have grown cold. 

2. Will I bring you a glass of water? 

3. He asked me would I lock the door. 

4. I scarcely ever remember to have seen such a stormy 

night. 

5. If it aint here, I must look some place else. 

6. Let's you and I look over these books. 

7. I will not kill ye ; let me not call ye cowards. 

8. The poet has his faults which any one professing to give 

a critical estimate of his works, are bound to point 
out. 

9. I am one of those who cannot describe what I do not 

see. 

10. On the table there was neatly and handily arranged two 

long pipes. 

11. " No," says I, U I knew it was her, the minute I see 

her." 

12. I would rather have my own than any body else's. 

13. I dont wish to upbraid you neither. 

14. The question of us going to Boston is not decided. 

15. Ask the murderer, he who has steeped his hands in the 

blood of another. 

16. This new steam engine is one of the greatest inventions 

that has been introduced within the last century. 

17. Who should I see but my old friend? 

18. He would have called upon you if he hadn't went 

earlier than what he expected to have gone. 



COMMON ERRORS. 155 

19. I wish we was going to have a whole year of vacation. 

20. Holmes " The Chambered Nautilus" is an exquisite 

poem. 

21. Was the mere fact of Aleck returning to the home of 

his childhood anything to weep over? 

22. You eat it with a spoon, like you would custard. 

23. Between you and I, its no use of them talking about 

him running away. 

24. A perfect woman is as beautiful as she is strong, as 

tender as she is sensible. 

25. Fire is a better servant than a master. 

No. 5. 

1. I says to the conductor, " We're most there, aint we?" 

2. Has the gas in the hall been lit yet? 

3. He could easily have swam across if the river had not 

been froze. 

4. Has the bell rang yet? Not as I know. 

5. Where the cow had laid down Cadmus founded the city. 

6. Take the three first examples in Percentage. 

7. The indulgent father promised that he should think over 

the plan. 

8. Plato believed that the soul was immortal. 

9. Why, uncle, thou has many years to live. 

10. The oldest son is a lad whom I think deserves encour- 

agement. 

11. Bills are requested to be paid quarterly. 

12. I have ventured . . . this many summers in a sea of 

glory. 

13. I will be a hundred miles from home by this time to- 

morrow. 

14. Will you be likely to meet the postman? 

15. It was my intention to have arranged the parts in a dif- 

ferent order. 



156 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

16. Of a pleasant day, their most always out walking. 

17. Ive heard that story of her's no less than a dozen times. 

18. Beside, the man is in such a feeble state that he cant 

hardly stand up. 

19. The urchin asked me would I give him lief to fire a 

snowball at me. 

20. In a stealthy fashion the old woman poured something 

in a cracked tea-cup and put the cup back in the 
closet. 

21. Without you understand the relations of words, you 

can't read good, I dont think. 

22. Longfellow is my favorite of all other poets. 

23. Some public man was mentioned — I forget whom. 

24. Men, Boys, and Children's Suits for sale at a great sac- 

rifice. 

25. Try and remember all these hints. 



REFERENCES. 

Errors in the Use of English. Hodgson. 

Mistakes in Writing English. Bigelow. 

Five Hundred Mistakes Corrected. 

Words and Their Uses. White. 

Essentials of English. Welsh. 

Good English. Gould. 

Every-Day English. White. 

Modern English. Hall. 

Historical Outlines of English Accidence. Morris. 

The Queen's English. Alford. 

The Dean's English. Moon. 



DICTION. 157 



CHAPTER VI. 

DICTION. 

Rhetoric is the science which treats of the modes of 
expressing thought by means of language. 

Diction is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the 
selection and the right use of words. The most impor- 
tant qualities of good diction are Purity, Propriety, 
and Precision. 

PURITY. 

Purity consists in using such words only as are " pure 
English." 

A word is said to be pure when it belongs to the 
language as it is at present used by the best writers 
and speakers. 

" Use is the law of language." 

A Barbarism is a violation of purity. 

CLASSES OF BARBARISMS. 

1» Foreign words not "domesticated" or "natu- 
ralized." — In the Dictionary, such words are printed 
in Italics. It sounds affected and pedantic to use a for- 
eign word if there is a word already in the language 
which means the same thing. Sometimes, however, no 
other word would do as well; for example, the word 
" pedantic " in this paragraph. 



158 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. Obsolete words, or words rarely used. — Ex. 

ycleped, for called. 

3. New words, not sanctioned by good usage. — 

Ex. dude. Also new meanings of old words,, unless 
sanctioned by good writers and speakers. Ex. crank, 
an eccentric person. 

4. Incorrectly formed words, or "hybrids." — Such 
words sometimes have the stem from one language, and 
the ending from another. Ex. singist. Sing is Saxon, 
but ist is a Greek ending. 

Not all such words are to be condemned. Photog- 
rapher, for example, is incorrectly formed, but it is 
more often used than is the correct formation, photog- 
raphist. 

5. Technical words, those peculiar to a trade, an 
art, or a science. 

Ex. anneal (glass-making) ; reagent (chemistry) ; developer 
(photography) ; subpoena (law). 

The meaning of such terms, however, is often wi- 
dened, so that they may not be strictly technical. To 
illustrate, the following sentences contain terms pecu- 
liar to Algebra : — 

Henry George is the exponent of the principles of the 
Anti-Poverty Society. 

Are we to eliminate from our schools the old history of 
Greece and Rome ? 

The soul is an unknown quantity. 

6. Local or provincial words, peculiar to a place or 
to a part of a country. Ex. guess, right smart, garden 
truck. 



DICTION. 159 

7. Low, colloquial, or vulgar words. — This class 
includes all slang terms. 

EXEEOISE IN PUEITY OF DICTION. 

The words in the following exercise are to be criticised 
with reference to their purity. 

Points to be Considered. 

1. Derivation and meaning of the word. Has the word a 

history ? 

2. Is the word foreign? If so, is it domesticated? Is it 

valuable ? 

3. Is it rare or obsolete? If so, what did it once mean? 

4. Is it new? Is it an old word with a new meaning? If 

so, is it authorized by the best writers and speakers? 

5. Is it correctly formed? If not, must we condemn it? 

6. Is it technical, provincial, or vulgar (slang) ? 

7. Illustrate use and meanings of each word by carefully 

written sentences. 

Preparation of Note-Books. — Pupils should be required 
to copy into note-books what they learn in regard to the 
words in the following exercise. Neat writing and orderly 
arrangement should be insisted upon. 

Model. 
I. (Derivation and History.) Siesta, n. [Sp. : Pg. sesta, from 
Lat. sexta, the sixth hour after sunrise, i.e. the hour of noon.] 
II. (Definition.) A short sleep taken about the middle of the 
day, or after dinner. 

III. (Criticism.) Foreign word, not domesticated. An illustra- 

tion of a large class of words introduced by travellers in 
foreign countries. 

IV. (Illustration.) In Spain no business is done* during the mid- 

dle of the day, as all the inhabitants are then taking a siesta. 



160 LESSONS IN ENGLISH, 

Exercise. 

1. Alamode, alibi, alias, acrobat, affidavit, adieu, alma 

mater, agnostic, Anarchist, athletics. 

2. Bric-a-brac, bonanza, belladonna, bogus, boj^cott, bi- 

cycle, bulldoze, blase, currentness, casuality. 

3. Chef d'oeuvre, cabal, coupon, celluloid, campaign (poli- 

tics), cute, crank (person), cablegram, d6pot, distingue. 

4. Dude, disgruntle, debris, employe, finale, fiat, " the 

Dickens," Fenian, gumption, good-bye. 

5. Hallelujah, hegira, helter-skelter, incertain, ignis-fatuus, 

ignoramus, item, idiot, interviewer, kirmess. 

6. Locate, misaffected, mugwump, mandamus, n6e, nom de 

plume, Nihilist, nobby, orate, on dit. 

7. Omnibus, oleomargarine, optimist, preventative, protege, 

parvenu, patois, palladium, phonography, pessimist. 

8. Quorum, quiz, quoth, rendezvous, rampage, rebus, soup- 

con, spirituelle, sang-froid, skedaddle. 

9. Soi-disant, saleslady, siesta, shibboleth, stentorian, soap- 

ine, sterling, saunterer, Socialist, swell (adjective). 
10. Talkist, telephone, tawdry, toboggan, tete-a-tete, type- 
writer, unique, unexcusable, wilderness, waitress. 

For this work, a recent edition of either Webster's 
or Worcester's Unabridged Dictionary is indispensable. 
Other books which will furnish helpful suggestions 
are : — 

Words and Their Uses. White. 

Good English. Gould. 

Words, Their Use and Abuse. Matthews. 

Words, Facts, and Phrases. Edwards. 

Studies in English. Scheie de Yere. 

On the Study of Words. Trench. 

Leaves from a Word-Hunter's Note-Book. Palmer. 

Errors in the Use of English. Hodgson. 



DICTION. 161 



PROPRIETY. 



Propriety of Diction consists in choosing such words 
as properly express the intended meaning. 

A word or a phrase which does not convey the idea 
intended by the author is an Impropriety. 

For example : the word bring is often improperly used 
for take. A child comes to his teacher with the request, 
" May I bring this pencil to my sister in No. 8? " 

Bring properly means to convey from a distance to a 
nearer point. Take or carry would properly express 
the child's intention, which is to convey the pencil from 
the nearer point to one farther away. 

Means of Attaining Propriety. — The surest way 
of attaining propriety of diction is carefully to observe 
and imitate the usage of the best writers and speak- 
ers of the present time. The Dictionary is not always 
a safe guide, since it aims to give all the senses in 
which a word may be used. Among these meanings 
are frequently found some which are not sanctioned 
by the best usage. We must remember, also, that 
words are continually losing old meanings and gain- 
ing new ones, so that it is not wise to copy the diction 
of even the best of our earlier writers. Shakespeare 
and Milton wrote classical English, but they used 
many words in senses which are no longer allowable. 
For example : admire was used by Milton in its Latin 
sense, to wonder at; and station, as used by Shake- 
speare, meant a manner of standing. 

Changes in the Meanings of Words. — It is interest- 
ing to note the changes in meaning which words have 



162 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

undergone. This process is still going on. A careful 
study of the supplement to one of our large dictiona- 
ries will furnish many examples of words which, in our 
own day, have gained new meanings. 

Examples of Words changed in Meaning. 

1. Pupil originally meant a fatherless bo} T or girl. 

2. Wretch was formerly used as a term of endearment. 

3. Painful was, in the seventeenth century, used in the 

sense of pains-taking. Ex. "Joseph was a painful 
carpenter." 

4. Damsel meant a young person of either sex. 

5. Gossip is a contraction of God-sib (God-relation), mean- 

ing a godfather or godmother. 

6. Nephew originally meant a grandchild. In the New 

Testament occurs the passage, "If any widow have 
children or nephews ," the last word being a transla- 
tion of the Greek word meaning descendants. 

7. Brave meant showy, splendid. 

8. Vivacity was used in the sense of longevity. It is re- 

corded of a certain man that he was ' ' most remark- 
able for his vivacity, for he lived 140 years." 

9. Imp was originally used in the sense of progeny, as we 

should use the word child. For example, "Let us 
pra}' for the preservation of the King's most excellent 
Majesty, and for the prosperous success of his be- 
loved son, Edward, our Prince, that most angelic imp." 

10. Improve meant originally to rebuke, to disapprove, to 

condemn. Shakespeare used the word improve in the 
sense to make use of; and Milton, in the sense of to 
increase. 

11. Idiot was applied to a person in private life; one who 

took no part in public affairs. 



DICTION. 163 

12. Carriage was formerly used in the sense of baggage. 

In Acts xxi. 15, we find this passage: "And after 
those days we took up our carriages and went up to 
Jerusalem. This means " We took up our burdens " 
or " We made ready our baggage." 

13. Demerit formerly meant just the opposite of what it 

does now. An ancient history of England speaks of 
Edward the Confessor as having been "- for his de- 
merits escribed emonge the Saincts." In modern 
times, persons are enrolled among the sinners, for the 
same cause. 

Etymology an Unsafe Guide. — It is not always safe 
to assume that the present meaning of a word is that 
indicated by its etymology. The following are exam- 
ples of words, the etymological meaning of which is 
not sanctioned by present usage : — 

1. Urbane, living in a city. 

2. Prevent, to go before. The word is used in this sense in 

the Bible. Ex. "I prevented the dawning of the 
morning." 

3. Miser, a miserable person. 

4. Impertinent, not pertinent, not pertaining to the matter 

in hand. 

5. Censure, opinion either good or bad. 

6. Reduce, to bring back. Ex. " A good man will go a 

little out of his road to reduce the wandering trav- 
eler." 

7. Depart had originally the meaning of dividing or sepa- 

rating. The clause in the marriage service, " till 
death us do part" originally read, " till death us 
depart." 



164 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

EXERCISE IN PEOPEIETT OF DICTION. 

The reference books alreacty mentioned will be of assist-., 
ance in correcting the following improprieties. In most 
cases the Dictionary will suggest the proper word to be sub- 
stituted for the Italicized word. 

Model. 

In the first sentence, the word audience is an impropriety. 
Audience comes from the Latin audio, to hear, and means, there- 
fore, an assembly of hearers. But we know from the sentence that 
the people had come to see, not to hear ; so the word should be 
spectators, from the Latin specto, to behold. The sentence should 
read, Every one of the spectators, etc. 

Exercise. 

1. Every one of the audience held his breath while the 

fearless girl danced along the rope, far above the 
heads of the people. 

2. Your son's writing is bad enough, but his spelling is 

positively awful. 

3. The last magazine contains a poem on " Our Dead 

Singer," alluding to Longfellow. 

4. Mrs. Caudle's style of conversation is enough to aggra- 

vate a saint. 
5.1 allow that no woman is going to order me around. 

6. It will be apt to rain on Saturday if you are going on a 

picnic. 

7. Hannibal saw before him three alternatives, — to march 

upon Rome, to attack the army of Claudius Nero, and 
to wait for reinforcements from Carthage. 

8. June was a cold, wet month, but the balance of the 

summer was hot and dry. 

9. Having received your kind invitation to visit }X)u this 

summer, I write to say that I am sorry I cannot go. 



DICTION. 165 

10. You might come for at least a couple of days. 

11. George Eliot was buried on a stormy day that was cal- 

culated to test the love of the friends who were present 
at the funeral. 

12. It was afterwards discovered that the woman was inno- 

cent of the charge and highly respectable in every way, 
but of course her character was ruined by the affair. 

13. His style of living corresponded ivith his means. 

14. We have just five minutes in which to catch the train. 

15. The Rev. Mr. Jenkins considers dancing as one of the 

deadly sins. 

16. The gallant captain took the battery, but his company 

was sadly decimated during the charge, nearly half of 
the men being killed and many others wounded. 

17. "At four o'clock," said Mrs. Lofty, " we will all drive 

in the park. Oh, yes, to be sure ! my coachman will 
drive us." 

18. Our servant girl says that she will not demean herself 

an} 7 longer by living with ladies that spend so much 
time in the kitchen. 

19. The United States has so greatly encouraged emigration 

that it now finds itself embarrassed by certain foreign 
elements of population which have become too power- 
ful. 

20. When the fisherman's wife heard the news, she seemed 

deeply effected. 

21. It gives me great pleasure to except your kind invitation 

for Thursday. 

22. I expect that my grandfather was rather a wild lad, in 

his day. 

23. This institution furnishes exceptionable advantages to 

students wishing to pursue an advanced course of 
stud}'. 

24. How much further is it to Boston by the other road? 



166 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

25. The children got very hungry before we got to town. 

26. By running down a narrow alley, the thief illuded his 

pursuers. 

27. Everything about the house proclaimed that its owner 

was an individual of taste. 

28. Aunt Mary is going to learn us how to play chess. 

29. I love baked apples and cream. 

30. There were not less than a hundred persons at the meet- 

ing. 

31. Our neighbor's trees are full of apples, but we shall not 

have so much as we had last year. 

32. Isn't our Algebra lesson lovely? 

33. Mr. Fisher is a mutual friend of John's and mine. 

34. It seems fanny that the girls did not put on mourning 

for their grandfather. 

35. The Scotts are so nice that I know we'll have a nice time 

visiting them. 

36. This very result was predicated in our columns, three 

months ago. 

37. Who was that fat old party who kept us all laughing? 

38. In the solitude of his cell the condemned man partook of 

his last meal. 

39. Edith always says " lots of folks" when she means 

" quantities of persons." 

40. You have as much right to get ten demerits as I have. 

41. Hoping to hear from you again, I remain, Yours respec- 

tively. 

42. Our new teacher is just perfectly splendid. His eyes 

are elegant. 

43. The Governor is stopping in town for a few days. 

44. Set the sum under the column of ones, and so proceed 

with each column successfully. 

45. Many years have now transpired since Sumter's guns 

woke the nation to a sense of its peril. 



DICTION. 167 

46. Please excuse my daughter for absence. She had the 

teethache. 

47. Tell your mother that if she is too busy to write, she. 

may send me a verbal message by you. 

48. Polly wants me to let my whiskers grow. 

49. You will be liable to find a fishing-rod at the corner 

store. 

50. He is well posted in regard to the management of rail- 

roads. 

PRECISION. 

Synonyms. — Attention has already been called to 
the fact that we have in English many instances of 
words which come from different sources, but which 
have the same general meaning; for example, yearly 
and annual, happiness and felicity, bodily and physical, 
spelling and orthography. In many cases, we have more 
than two words which express the same general idea; 
as, for example, aged, ancient, antique, antiquated, and 
obsolete, all of which have the meaning of old. All of 
these words of like meaning are, therefore, said to be 
synonymous, and they are called synonyms. No other 
language is so rich in synonyms as is the English, 
owing to its composite character. 

Importance of the Study of Synonyms. — We 

notice that, while all the words in the last example 
have the same general idea, each has its own particular 
force and application. We say " an ancient temple," 
"an aged man," " antique jewelry," "antiquated ap- 
parel," u an obsolete word"; but not an ancient hat, an 
antique soldier, or an aged word. From this illustra- 
tion, we see how necessary it is to study the distinctions 



168 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

between words which are nearly synonymous. If we 
would learn to express our thoughts with clearness, 
accuracy, and force, we must be precise in our choice 
of words. 

Precision of Diction consists in choosing from syn- 
onymous terms those which best express the ideas to be 
conveyed. The word precision is from the Latin prceci- 
dere, to cut off; and has the idea of cutting off all ideas 
except the one which we wish to express. 



KEFERENCES. 

Dictionary of Synonyms. Crabb. 
Synonyms Discriminated. Smith. 
Thesaurus of English Words. Roget. 



EXEEOISE IH" PRECISION. 

(a) Learn distinctions in meaning, and copy them into 
a note-book, for reference in review. 

(b) Illustrate, by an original sentence, the precise use 
of each word. 

(c) Insert the proper word in each blank. 

Abandon, desert, forsake. 

1. At the approach of winter, the birds . . . their nests, 

and fly towards the south. 

2. The heartless mother . . . her child, leaving it to the 

charity of strangers. 

3. No true soldier will . . . his post in the hour of danger. 

4. What sadder sight than a . . . house, what more griev- 

ous lot than that of a . . . wife ! 

5. The captain ... his ship to the mercy of the waves. 



DICTION. 169 

Absolve, exonerate, acquit. 

1. After a long trial, the prisoner was ... by the intelli- 

gent jury. 

2. It having transpired that John was the real offender, 

his brother was . . . from the charge. 

3. " Why, Mary," said her mistress, " do you believe that 

the priest can . . . you from the sin of stealing?" 

4. I accept your apology and . . . you from all blame. 

Aged, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete, old. 

1. This parchment scroll written in capitals is a . . . book. 

2. My . . . friend, Mrs. Collins, has a . . . father. 

3. A dress made fifty years ago looks not so very . . . now, 

but, on the contrary, almost stylish. 

4. We saw an elegant silver vase of . . . design, but of 

recent manufacture. 

5. The word misaffected is now ... . 

6. I found in the garret a . . . History of Rome, and, in 

spite of its . . . style, I became deeply interested 
in its account of that . . . nation. 

7. My brother has a collection of . . . coins, including an 

almost complete set of United States pennies, and 
a few . . . specimens of the money used by the . . . 
Greeks and Romans. 
8 Her costume was . . . enough to be worn at an Old 
Folks' Concert, and I couldn't help laughing, where- 
upon my . . . relative remarked that reverence for the 
. . . must be . . . in these days. 

Avow, acknowledge, confess, admit. 

1. The two older brothers . . . their intention of enlisting 
in the army, and when questioned, . . . that they had 
already visited the recruiting officer. 



170 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. I . . . my fault. I . . . my sin. I ... my purpose to 

do better iu the future. 

3. With shame I . . . that you are right in thinking that I 

only half believe the principles which I . . . . 

4. She . . . that she had whispered and . . . her intention 

of doing it again under like circumstances. 

Account, description, narrative, narration, recital. 

1. I listened, as patiently as possible, to the ... of her 

numerous trials, real and imaginary. 

2. Have you read the ... of that awful railroad accident? 

The ... of the scenes about the wreck is heart- 
rending. 

3. No one who heard her relate the anecdote can doubt 

that she has wonderful powers of ... . 

4. The ... of the life of a missionary's family occupies 

the opening chapters. Then follows a fine ... of the 
island itself, and a ... of the thrilling events of the 
sixth of August. 

5. The commander of the fort refused to hear the ... of 

the Indian's wrongs, so the chief strode away, thirst- 
ing for revenge. 

Attend, hearken, listen. 

1. It is impolite to ... to conversation which is not in- 

tended for our ears. 

2. You will find no difficulty in doing the examples, if you 

... to the explanation. 

3. Young persons should ... to the counsels of their 

elders. 

4. ... unto the words of our great white father in Wash- 

ington. 

5. The frightened mother . . . , dreading to hear the sound 

again. 



DICTION. 171 



At last, at length. 



1. Having been delayed by an accident to the stage, and 

having almost missed the train in consequence, we 
were ... on our way to the city. 

2. The lawsuit had been in progress for ten years, and 

was . . . settled in favor of the plaintiff. 

3. Still young but weary with hope deferred, the dying 

woman sighed, " . . .1 shall find rest." 

4. Have you come . . . ? I've been waiting nearly an hour. 

Discover, invent. 

1. The steam-engine is one of the greatest . . . of this age. 

2. It is said that Pythagoras . . . the proposition that the 

square on the longest side of a right-angled triangle 
is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two 
sides. 

3. Many men are at work trying to ... an electric motor 

that shall not have this disadvantage. 

4. Doubtless not all the properties of electricity have yet 

been .... 

5. Whitney . . . the cotton gin; and Morse, the electric 

telegraph. 

Only, alone. 

1. She ... of all the family, had courage to go . . . into 

that darkened room. 

2. Man shall not live by bread .... 

3. They differ on . . . one point, but that ... is a suffi- 

cient cause for unhappiness. 

4. The . . . survivor of all the ship's company lived for 

many years ... on a desert island. 

5. ... virtue can make us happy. Virtue . . . can make 

us happy. 



172 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Solecism, impropriety, barbarism. 

1. I did not notice any ... in his conduct, but certain . . . 

like " he don't" betrayed his lack of culture. 

2. Telegram is a reputable word, but cablegram is a ... . 

3. Shootist is a ... ; had went, a . . . ; and got sleepy 

is a ... . 

4. The use of practical for practicable is a common .... 

Sufficient, enough. 

1 . Have you . . . courage to carry you through this ordeal ? 

2. Many people have money . . . for all their needs, but 

very few have . . . money, and I never heard of any- 
body who thought he had too much. 

3. A greed} r child never has .... 

4. It is . . . for me to know that heaven is a place of rest. 

5. We have . . . proof of his disloyalty to warrant us in 

treating him with coldness. 

Pale, pallid, wan. 

1. In the moonlight, the sufferer's face looked . . . and 

worn. 

2. A slight flush came over the . . . face of the sick girl. 

3. And there, their . . . faces pinched with the cold, hov- 

ered the children of poverty. 

4. Miss B. wore a charming costume of . . . green. 

Opportunity, occasion. 

1. If you have . . . to go to the village this afternoon, 

will you seize the ... to inquire if our tea-kettle is 
mended? 

2. I frequently have ... to call upon Mrs. Fox, in con- 

nection with our work for the poor children of the 
church. 



DICTION. 173 

3. The short noon recess gives but little . . . for going 

home to dinner. 

4. The teacher took ... to say to his class, " You are 

neglecting golden . . . ." 

5. On such . . . , she wore a marvellous black silk apron. 

Kill, murder, assassinate. 

1. President Lincoln was .... 

2. After ... his employer, the wretch returned to the 

barn and resumed his occupation of . . . and dressing 
turkeys for market. 

3. The king was ... by a man who shot an arrow at him 

from behind a great tree in the forest. 

4. Forty-seven persons were ... by the explosion of a 

boiler. 

5. Mr. Gilbert . . . the burglar in the act of carrying off 

his booty. 

Consist in, consist of. 

1. Diction, as considered in this work, . . . three parts: 

Purity, Propriety, and Precision. 

2. Good order . . . quiet attention to the duty of the hour. 

3. True happiness does not . . . having everything our 

own way. 

4. The air . . . two gases, — oxygen and nitrogen. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXEEOISES IN DICTION. 

1. Write the following correctly in all respects : — 

New haven June 22 1887 My dear friend I expect you 
are aggravated with me because I have not written to 
you but I have had a couple of our mutual friends 
stopping with me and they would not do anything or 
go anywhere without I went to one morning we weut 



174 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

fishing but it was so hot we got awful tired and could 
not go any further and when we got home we were glad 
to lay down in fact we spent the balance of the day in 
the house and the next day we were all two much used 
up to go to the tennis tournament where there was to be 
some exceptionable playing by some swell players who 
had excepted a challenge from our club none of our 
boys play like they do of course but we lost less games 
than we expected too and I guess they were surprised 
at this for they had not considered us as having much 
of a character as players we felt dreadfully disappointed 
at missing the fun father dont say much but he allows 
we have been learned a lesson we will not be apt to for- 
get neither of we three fellows have wanted to go fish- 
ing since that time many other events have transpired 
during these few weeks but I must complete my letter 
at once if it is to go to you to-day 

Yours respectively 

2. Substitute the correct words for those which have not 
proper authority, and underline any foreign words 
which are not domesticated. 

Mrs. Jones, nee Smith, called upon me Tuesday. 
Knowing that she was coming, I arrayed myself in my 
new dress which gives me a really distingue" look (I sup- 
pose because it has only a soupcon of color in it) , and 
seated myself on a fauteuil. Mrs. Jones's husband is 
only an employe of Kent & Co., but his wife imagines 
herself au fait ; and as I did not wish to jeopardize the 
good opinion which she seems to have of me, I prepared 
to receive her k la mode. We talked of various things : 
of the trouble she had had to get a new waitress ; of the 
place in which her brother is going to locate ; of musi- 
cal matters, for Mrs. J. is a great singist ; and finally of 



DICTION. 175 

belles-lettres. Then my caller made her exit,, and bade 
me au revoir, promising soon to spend an evening with 
me ; that is, if her husband, who is not noted for his 
gallantness, would accompany her. 

3. Re-write the above extract, inserting, as far as possible, 

good English words in place of the foreign words and 
phrases. 

4. Write a composition, including as many as possible of 

the one hundred words in the Exercise on Purity. 
Underline the words taken from the exercise. 

The following sketch, written by a pupil, contains ninety- 
three words out of the one hundred which were assigned 
for study, the list differing somewhat from the one in this 
chapter. 

Mrs. Ensign's Reception. 

Mrs. Ensign sat in her parlor receiving guests on her 
reception day. Her first caller was Mrs. Gerard, who was 
dressed in a costume made & la mode, with a soupcon of pea- 
cock green in the trimming. Her efforts to appear distingue 
were not wholly successful. After the usual greetings, she 
said: "I have just come from the studio of the famous 
artist, who has just completed a picture which is considered 
his chef d'oeuvre. His studio is the rendezvous for lovers of 
art and literature, as the gentleman is also gifted as a talkist 
and elocutist, and has even been known to orate impromptu 
on the palladium of the people's rights and the shibboleth of 
opposed factions ; but he has attended so many fetes that he 
is already quite blase. His studio is furnished beautifully, 
though the curtains are rather tawdry. He has some lovely 
bric-ti-brac, and some unique ornaments. There is a beau- 
tiful dado around the base of the paper, and several decalco- 
manias on the wall add greatly to the general effect. 



176 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

" By the way," she went on, " have you heard the latest 
on dit? The charming widow Green nee Fanshawe is soon 
to marry the soi-disant count, who is said to be very rich, 
although his rank is an imposture. Her relatives wish he 
were at the antipodes, and say that he made his money in a 
factory for the manufacture of celluloid bracelets, caramels, 
and cachous. But she was never very docible, and was 
alwa} T s suspected of disobedientness ; so it is probable that 
she will take her own way in the matter. 

"I have just heard from my husband," she continued, 
" who is now in Liverpool, but he does not enthuse over that 
city, and is anxious to be again in a cisatlantic town and 
among occidental manners and customs. He says that Eng- 
land and Russia will soon arrive at an ultimatum, although 
there is a cabal trying to put preventatives in their way, and 
for that reason they are in an incertain state. 

"I must go now," she said, rising, "as I must take a 
siesta and then go to the depot to meet Miss Lester, a pro- 
tegee of mine, for whose benefit I am to enact the rdle of 
chaperon at a swell reception which has been on the tapis for 
several weeks." And with this remark she departed. 

The next caller was a lady who had a sad story to tell. 

"Imagine my surprise," she said, " when the wench whom 
I have employed as waitress came to my room and said, in a 
very suggestive way, that a person must either be an idiot or 
without gumption to think that a salary of two dollars a 
week was enough for a first-class waiter lady. She further 
informed me that she was going to accept a position as sales- 
lady in a store where the principal stock in trade consisted 
of twine and thread and soapine and scrubine; and with that 
announcement she made her exit. 

"Have you heard," the guest continued, "about the 
Smiths ? They have suddenly become rich through a specu- 
lation which at first seemed to be an ignis fatuus, but which 



DICTIOtf. 177 

has turned out a bonanza, They are parvenues, however, 
and will not be received into good society. They still speak 
in the patois of the region from which they came. It is said 
that one of the sons was an acrobat, but is now quite a dude, 
and wears nobby suits from Paris. Another son is said to 
have received a diploma from Yale, and is very fond of 
alluding to his alma mater ; but he must have forgotten all 
that he learned there, for he is now quite an ignoramus. 
During the recent campaign he figured as a mugwump and a 
filibuster, but since that excitement was over, he has been 
known as a saunierer who is always disgruntled with every- 
thing. Mr. Smith has strong agnostic tendencies, and is 
chiefly proud of his pounds sterling and of his youngest 
daughter, a lovely spirituelle child, who seems to be quite out 
of place beside her cockney brothers. 

" Have you heard," she said, " that the famous author 
who wrote under the nom-de-plume of ; Nihilist ' took so 
much belladonna by mistake that for a time his friends 
feared that he would not recover, and ordered a magnificent 
hearse and sarcophagus in case he should need them ? He 
has recovered, however, and the doctor has ordered him to 
go either to some imlderness or to a plateau to recuperate." 

After a few more remarks, the lady took her leave. 

The next caller was a lawyer with a stentorian voice. 
" This very warm weather," he said, " has caused an hegira 
of people to the seaside, thereby considerably decreasing the 
populosity of the town. I should also go into the country, 
but the Supreme Court has issued a mandamus that the case 
in which I am to plead shall be tried instanter; and as the 
fiat has gone forth, I must obey. In this case, James Wil- 
liams alias Brown is trying to prove an alibi. On the first 
da} 7 of the trial, he will make his affidavit that he is neither a 
Fenian nor a maker of rebuses. All through his imprison- 
ment he has maintained the utmost sang-froid, but also a 



178 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

rough sort of gallantness which has won for him the favor of 
the prison officials. Unless some unforeseen casuality should 
occur, I think he will win the case ; and I shall be right glad 
if he does." 

After some trifling remarks about the weather, the lawyer 
departed, and Mrs. Ensign's reception day was over. 



ADDITIONAL REFERENCES. 

A Book about Words. Graham. 

All about Hard Words. 

Common Words with Curious Derivations. Smith. 

Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words. Halliwell. 

Dictionary of Americanisms. Bartlett. 

Americanisms. Scheie De Vere. 

Lost Beauties of the English Language. Mackay. 

Standard English. Oliphant. 

Essentials of English. Welsh. 

A Dictionary of English Synonymes. Soule. 

Practical Rhetoric. Clark. 

Discriminate : A Companion to " Don't." 

The Philosophy of Words. Garlanda. 

The English Language. Meiklejohn. 

The Slang Dictionary. 



SENTENCES. 179 



CHAPTER VII. 

SENTENCES. 

A Sentence is such an expression of thought as 
makes complete sense, and is followed by a full pause. 

Grammatical Classification of Sentences. 

1. A Simple Sentence contains but one proposition. 
Ex. " The sun shines." 

2. A Complex Sentence contains one independent 
proposition and one or more dependent propositions. 

Ex. "The sun shines, even when we do not see it." 

3. A Compound Sentence contains two or more co- 
ordinate propositions. 

Ex. " The sun shines, and the earth is glad." 

Rhetorical Classification. 

As considered in Rhetoric, sentences are divided into 
three classes, according to their construction. 

1. A Periodic Sentence does not complete the main 
thought until the close of the sentence. 

Ex. " Having been wrecked on the coast of Jamaica, 
during one of his voyages, and reduced to the verge of star- 
vation by the want of provisions which the natives refused 
to supply, Columbus took advantage of their ignorance of 
astronomy." 



180 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. A Loose Sentence is so constructed that it may 
be brought to a close in two or more places and in each 
case make complete sense. 

Ex. " We made our way up the mountain, | riding in the 
shade of lofty birches, | occasionally crossing the path of 
some clear mountain stream, | but hearing no human voice | 
and seldom even the chirp of bird or insect." 

3. A Balanced Sentence is made up of two mem- 
bers which are similar in form, but often contrasted in 
meaning. 

Ex. "Train up a child in the way he should go; and 
when he is old, he will not depart from it." " Worth makes 
the man ; the want of it, the fellow." 

Effects of Different Kinds of Sentences. 

Too many loose sentences give an impression of care- 
lessness. 

Too many periodic sentences make the style stiff and 
monotonous. 

Balanced sentences are well suited to satire or to 
essays in which persons or things are contrasted. They 
are not suitable in narrative or description. 

Antithesis is commonly expressed by the use of the 
balanced sentence. 

Eule as to Kinds of Sentences. 

Study variety. The mind tires of any one style of 
construction carried to excess. 



SENTENCES. 181 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Classify the following sentences, with regard to gram- 
matical and rhetorical construction. 

(b) Change the loose sentences to the periodic form. 

1 . There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing ; 
there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches. 

2. The great burdens he had borne, the terrible anxieties 
and perplexities that had poisoned his life, and the 
peaceful scenes he had forever left behind, swept across 
his memory. 

3. A man may be loyal to his government, and yet 
oppose the peculiar principles and methods of the ad- 
ministration. 

4. He paced up and down the walk, forgetful of every- 
thing around him, and intent only on some subject that 
absorbed his mind, his hands behind him, his hat and 
coat off, and his tall form bent forward. 

5. The sad sincerity, the fine insight, and the amazing 
vividness and picturesque felicity of the style, make the 
" Reminiscences " a remarkable book. 

6. "I cannot do it" never accomplished anything; U J 
will try " has wrought wonders. 

7. History is a mighty drama, enacted upon the theatre 
of time, with suns for lamps, and eternity for a back- 
ground. 

8. If you look about you and consider the lives of others 
as well as your own ; if you think how few are born 
with honor, and how many die without name or chil- 
dren ; how little beauty we see, and how few friends we 
hear of ; how many diseases, and how much poverty 
there is in the world ; you will fall down upon your 
knees, and, instead of repining at your afflictions, will 



182 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

admire so man}' blessings which you have received at 
the hand of God. 

9. There in the west was the Great Pyramid, hiding the 
sun from view, and utilizing the last departing rays to 
cast a great sharp shadow eastward across the necropo- 
lis of the desert, just as it has done ever since the 
slaves of Cheops placed the last stone upon its apex. 

10. It looks rather odd to see civilized people sitting in 
a parlor, surrounded by every possible luxury wealth 
can bring except fire, wrapped in furs and rugs, with 
blue noses and chattering teeth, when coal is cheap and 
the mountains are covered with timber. 

11. He philosophically developed the rise of Puritanism 
and the causes of the Pilgrim emigration, and came 
down to the Mayflower, to Miles and Rose Standish, to 
the landing at Plymouth, the severity of the winter, the 
famine and the sickness, and the many deaths — fifty 
out of a hundred, including the beautiful Rose Standish. 

12. The shores are still further diversified by bluffs and 
rocky points, by tongues of white sand shooting out 
into Long Island Sound, by pretty ponds and odd mills, 
and by orchards and meadows coming down to the 
water's edge. 

13. As you gaze down upon these simple homes from the 
Acropolis in the earliest dawn of a summer morning, 
and see the inmates, roused from a night's rest, light a 
little fire in the open air and prepare their frugal meal — 
as you see how pathetically these little houses seem to 
cling like suppliants about the knees of the marble- 
crowned, world-famous Rock of Athens, it takes little 
fancy to imagine that these homes of the poor have 
crept for protection beneath the mighty shadow of the 
stronghold of liberty in the city's glorious past. 



SENTENCES. 18§ 

Second Rhetorical Classification. 

For convenience, a more general classification of sen- 
tences is often made, all sentences being regarded as 
either Short or Long. 

Effects of the Two Kinds of Sentences. 

Short sentences give animation to the style, but a 
constant use of them becomes tiresome and destroys 
smoothness of expression. 

Long sentences give a fine opportunity for climax, 
but are commonly not so easily understood as shorter 
ones. They require closer attention on the part of the 
reader or hearer. 

Rule as to Length of Sentences. 

Do not use either short or long sentences to excess. 
Vary the construction, to prevent monotony. 

EXEKOISE. 

1. Novels, as a class, are injurious to young people. 
They destroy the taste for more solid reading. They 
cultivate the emotions to an undue extent. They con- 
vey false impressions of life. 

[Combine into one sentence.] 

2. I was once an enlisted soldier, under the three 
months' call, and for three days was in camp at Hart- 
ford, sleeping in tents, rising at the tap of the drum, 
going through the routine of drill, and thrice daily 
marching to the Clinton House for rations, when the 
word came from Washington that no more three months' 
men were wanted in front, but three years, or for the 
war, it having at last penetrated the brains of the men 



184 LESSOKS IK ENGLISH. 

in authorit} 7 that the contest was no boy's play of two 
or three months, but man's work for an indefinite period. 

[Divide into six sentences.] 

3. A dog crossed a rivulet. He had a piece of meat in 
his mouth. He saw his own shadow represented in the 
clear mirror of the stream. He believed it to be 
another dog. This dog was also carrying a piece of 
meat. The real dog could not forbear catching at 
this supposed piece of meat. He did not get anything 
by his greedy design. He dropped the piece of meat 
which he had in his mouth. It sank to the bottom. It 
was irrecoverably lost. We daily see men venture their 
property in wild and shadowy speculations. We then 
see exemplified the moral of this fable. The moral is, 
" Covet all, lose all." [Re-write, with long sentences.] 

4. He endeavored to calm the apprehensions of his 
mother, and to assure her that there was no truth in all 
the rumors she had heard : she looked at him dubiously 
and shook her head : but finding his determination was 
not to be shaken, she brought him a little thick Dutch 
Bible, with brass clasps, to take with him as a sword 
wherewith to fight the powers of darkness ; and, lest 
that might not be sufficient, the housekeeper gave him 
the Heidelberg catechism, by way of dagger. 

[Divide into four sentences.] 

5. The first part of the Rangoon's voyage was accom- 
plished under excellent conditions. The weather was 
moderate. All the lower portion of the immense Bay 
of Bengal was favorable to the steamer's progress. 
They kept pretty close to the coast. The savage 
Papuans of the island did not show themselves. They 
are beings of the lowest grade of humanit}'. The pan- 
oramic development of the island was superb. 

[Combine into three sentences.] 



SENTENCES. 185 

6. I recollect, with a half -painful, half -amusing dis- 
tinctness all the little incidents of the dreadful scene ; 
how I found myself standing in an upper chamber of a 
gloomy brick house, book in hand, — it was a thin vol- 
ume, with a tea-green paper cover and a red roan back, 
— before an awful being, who put questions to me which, 
for all that I could understand of them, might as well 
have been couched i^ Coptic or in Sanskrit ; how, when 
asked about governing, I answered, "I don't know," 
and when about agreeing, "I can't tell," until at last, 
in despair, I said nothing, ane"! choked down my tears, 
wondering, in a dazed, dumb faslvion, whether all this 
was part and parcel of that total depravity of the human 
heart of which I had heard so much ; how then the 
being — to whom I apply no epithet, for, poor creature, 
he thought he was doing God service — said to me, in a 
terrible voice, "You are a stupid, idle boy, sir, and 
have neglected your task." 

[Re- write with short sentences.] 

7. Piedmont, near Torteval, is one of the three corners 
of the Island of Guernsey. At the extremity of the 
cape there rises a high turfy hill, which looks over the 
sea. The height is a lonely place. All the more lonely 
from there being one solitary house there. This house 
adds a sense of terror to that of solitude. It is popu- 
larly believed to be haunted. Haunted or not, its aspect 
is singular. Built of granite and rising only one story 
high, it stands in the midst of the grassy solitude. 

[Combine into four sentences.] 

8. One [object], which was almost imperceptible in the 
wide movement of the waters, was a sailing boat. In 
this was a man. It was the sloop. The other, black, 
motionless, colossal, rose above the waves, a singular 
form. Two tall pillars issuing from the sea bore aloft a 



186 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

cross-beam which was like a bridge between them. This 
bridge, so singular in shape that it was impossible to 
imagine what it was from a distance, touched each of 
the two pillars. It resembled a vast portal. Of what 
use could such an erection be in that open plain, the 
sea, which stretched around it far and wide? Its wild 
outline stood well-defined against the clear sky. 

The two perpendicular forms were the Douvres. The 
huge mass held fast between them, like an architrave 
between two pillars, was the wreck of the Durande. 

[Re-write, with longer sentences.] 

Rules for the Construction of Sentences. 

Rhetorical Qualities of a Good Sentence. — The 

most important qualities of a good sentence are Clear- 
ness, Emphasis, Unity, Strength, and Harmony. 

CLEARNESS. 

General Rule. — The arrangement of words should 
be such that the meaning cannot be misunderstood. 

Special Rules. 

1. Position of the Adverb. — Adverbs should be 
placed as near as possible to the words which they 
modify. 

Ex. " I only saw two birds." 

Here the adverb only seems to modify saw ; I saw 
them, but did not hear them sing ; or, I saw them, but 
did not shoot them. If the thought is that there were 
two birds, and no more, the adverb is in the wrong place. 
The sentence should read, I saw only two birds. 



SENTENCES. 187 

2. Position of Modifiers in General. — All modi, 
tiers, whether words, phrases, or clauses, should be 
placed as near as possible to the word or words which 
they limit. 

Ex. " He went to town, driving a flock of sheep, on 
horseback" 

The phrase on horseback modifies went ; but from its 
position, it seems to refer to sheep. The proper order 
would be, He went to town, on horseback, driving a 
flock of sheep. 

Participial Construction. — In the use of participial 
phrases and clauses, great care is needed to preserve 
clearness of thought. 

Ex. "Being exceedingly fond of birds, an aviary is al- 
ways to be found within the grounds." 

Here the participial phrase seems to refer to aviary ; 
it should, of course, refer to some person previously 
named. For example, "Sir Robert being exceedingly 
fond of birds," etc. 

3. Use of Pronouns. — Every pronoun should be so 
placed that its antecedent cannot be mistaken. 

Ex. " The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate." 

The pronoun which seems to refer to boxes as its ante- 
cedent. It should refer to figs. 

" The figs which we ate were in small wooden boxes." 

Sometimes two persons are referred to in the same 
sentence, and the pronouns are used so carelessly that 
we cannot be positive as to their antecedents. Such 
pronouns are said to be ambiguous. 



188 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Ex. " James told John that his horse had run away." 

Whose horse ? In order to make the meaning clear, 
it is well to change to the form of direct discourse. 

James said to John, " My horse has run away" ; or, 
James said to John, u Your horse has run away." 

4. " Squinting Construction." — A word, a phrase, or 
a clause should not be thrown loosely into a sentence, 
so that it may be understood as referring to either the 
preceding or the following part. 

Ex. " Please tell my mother, if she is at home, I shall not 
hurry back." 

The clause if she is at home may modify what pre- 
cedes, the idea being, If she is at home, please give her 
my message. But the clause may also be connected in 
meaning with the last part of the sentence — I shall not 
hurry back, if she is at home. If she is away from home, 
my services may be needed, and I must hurry back. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the sentences, explaining which of the special 
rules is violated. 

1. Here is a fresh basket of eggs. 

2. The dress was trimmed with white glass round beads. 

3. People ceased to wonder by degrees. 

4. Being early killed, I sent a party in search of his man- 

gled body. 

5. Did you take that book to the library, which I loaned 

you? 

6. So utterly was Carthage destroyed that we are unable 

to point out the place where it stood at the present 
day. 



SENTENCES. 189 

7. The mad dog bit a horse on the leg, which has since 

died. 

8. When a man kills another from malice, it is called 

murder. 

9. All helped themselves to what the keg contained, includ- 

ing Rip Van Winkle. 

10. Lost. A Lap Robe having a yellow tiger on a red 

ground, on the way from Fair Haven. 

11. Then the Moor, seizing a bolster, filled with rage and 

jealousy, smothers her. 

12. He died of a slow bilious fever, aged 47 years and 6 

months. 

13. Wanted. A Drug Clerk immediately. 

14. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see ; nor boots, 

that cannot walk. 

15. Twenty-six monks were buried in one grave which had 

died of the plague. 

16. The contents of the keg was poured into flagons, and 

Rip was made to wait upon them. 

17. I enjoyed the sail going up and down the river very 

much. 

18. There is a horse ploughing with one eye. 

19. The earth looks as if it was flat on the map. 

20. When the cat came into the room, feeling tired, I laid 

aside my work and began to talk to her. 

21. After showing her the room prepared for her use, she 

retired. 

22. The captain was only saved by clinging to a raft. 

23. A number of persons were poisoned by eating ice cream 

at a party that was flavored with peach-leaves. 

24. Lost. A cow belonging to an old woman with brass 

knobs on her horns. 

25. The horses became fatigued, and after holding a council 

they decided to go no farther. 



190 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

26. The rising tomb a lofty column bore. 

27. I saw two men digging a well with straw hats. 

28. Mrs. of Troy was killed Wednesday morning while 

cooking her husband's breakfast in a shocking man- 
ner. 

29. The next is the tomb of the Abbot Vitalis, who died 

in 1082, and was formerly covered with plates of 
brass. 

30. I counted twenty-five meteors, the other night, sitting 

on the front piazza. 

31. There is on exhibition at the high school a map of Italy 

drawn by a pupil seven feet long and four and a half 
feet wide. 

32. An aged woman killed a snake that came into the house 

with a fire-shovel, after all the rest of the family had 
fled. 

33. If fresh milk does not seem to agree with the child, 

boil it. 

34. I cannot tell you, if you ask me, why I did it. 

35. This monument was erected to the memory of John 

Smith, who was shot, as a mark of affection by his 
brother. 

36. Anybody could see that mother had been crying, with 

half an eye. 

37. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him that his 

cattle were in his fields. 

38. The visitor's eye will be struck, on entering the room, 

with a porcelain umbrella. 

39. The Athenians wrote the name of the person whom they 

wished to banish on a shell. 

40. His son Rip had grown to be a man, and he inherited all 

of his good nature and laziness. 

41. The patent sounding board and equalizing scale are 

only found in the Mathushek piano. 



SENTENCES. 191 

42. " No," said the bashful boy, " but I have wished that I 

could drop through the floor a thousand tinies." 

43. And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. 

44. There were many elegant presents, including a solid sil- 

ver set and a patch-work quilt from the bride's grand- 
mother, containing 4230 separate pieces. 

45. I never expect to be a good writer. 

46. I don't think that skedaddle is a good word. 

47. Mr. Osborn's father died when he was eight years old, 

and from that time he was confined to the house for 
seven years with ill-health. 

48. Five dollars reward offered for the discovery of any per- 

son injuring this property by order of the chief of 
police. 

49. Many soldiers have died since the war ended from dis- 

eases the foundation of which was laid in the service. 

50. The swallows come back each year to the places 

which have previously sheltered them, without map or 
compass. 

EMPHASIS. 

General Rule. — The words of a sentence should be 
so arranged that the emphasis in reading will naturally 
come upon the main parts of the sentence, the Principal 
Subject and the Principal Predicate. 

Special Rules. 

1. The Principal Subject. — The principal subject, 
it must be remembered, is not, in all cases, the grammat- 
ical subject of the sentence. Sometimes it is in the 
objective case, as in the sentence, " You have heard the 
story of Paul Revere s ride" Here the most important 
thing spoken of is not the grammatical subject you. The 



192 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

emphasis in reading will naturally come upon the last 
three words, which constitute the principal subject. 
Notice how the sentence loses its force if we say, Of the 
story of Paul Revere s ride, you have heard. 

The place of the principal subject is commonly at the 
beginning of the sentence, but stronger emphasis is 
often secured by inversion. 

" Great is Diana of the Ephesians ! " is far more em- 
phatic than Diana of the Ephesians is great. 

Often, too, and especially in sentences which contain 
participial phrases or clauses, it is well to dispose of 
the modifiers first, and then to introduce the principal 
subject. 

Ex. "Allowing for the exaggeration of friendship and 
poetry, Tennyson's tribute to his friend is just and well 
deserved." 

2. The Principal Predicate. — The same suggestions 
will apply to the principal predicate. Let the modifiers 
be so arranged that the Principal Subject and the Prin- 
cipal Predicate shall stand out clearly in the sentence. 

Proper emphasis may often be secured by changing 
the verb from the passive form to the active. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Point out the principal subject and the principal 
predicate of each sentence. 

(b) Reconstruct the sentence, so as to increase the em- 
phasis. 

1. That the empire has provinces which blend something of 
foreign genius with their national character, on her 
every frontier, is of the greatness of France one im- 
portant element. 



SENTENCES. 193 

2. She, being ambitious to perform the same exploit, darted 

from her nest and fixed her talons in a large sheep. 

3. Surely no man can be full}' compensated for the loss of 

education by great wealth. 

4. She is a woman who, in domestic pursuits, is fully 

occupied. 

5. The English language, spoken in the time of Elizabeth 

by a million fewer persons than to-day speak it in 
London alone, now girdles the earth with its electric 
chain of communication, and voices the thoughts of a 
hundred million of souls. 

6. By the missionaries, the volcano at Ternate, or in some 

part of the Moluccas, was supposed to be in action. 

7. Henry Small, a mill operative, was struck at River- 

point, R. I., at 6.15 this morning, while walking on the 
track of the New York and New England railroad, by 
an extra engine, and instantly killed. 

8. From Charleston Harbor, having gained a booty of be- 

tween seven and eight thousand dollars, the pirates 
sailed away to the coast of North Carolina. 

9. By means of a simple affair called the hektograph, we 

can make some fifty copies of a written paper. 

10. Some people think that it is " the Eastern question" 

w^hich is the really serious problem of to-day. 

11. When this man's talents were recognized, it was too 

late ; for he and his wife had died in obscure poverty. 

12. To imprison all of the crew seems unjust, although care 

should be taken that the murderer does not escape. 

13. A man, having incautiously stepped into an air-hole, was 

drowned yesterday at Lake Whitne}', while cutting 
ice. 

14. While the storm was raging, a tree was struck by a flash 

of lightning, which was the only flash seen during the 
storm, and which looked like a ball of fire. 



194 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

15. A brazen statue of Justice stood in the public square, 
once in an ancient city, whose name I no longer 
remember, raised aloft on a column, upholding the 
scales in its left hand, and in its right a sword. 

UNITY. 

General Rule. — The parts of a sentence should be 
so arranged that unity of thought shall be maintained. 

Special Rules. 

1. Change of Subject. — The subject should be 
changed as little as is unavoidable. This rule does not, 
of course, mean that a sentence must never contain 
more than one subject. 

Ex. " The vessel made for the shore, and the passengers 
soon crowded into the boats, and the beach was reached in 
safety, where the inhabitants of the island received them 
with the utmost kindness. " 

This sentence contains four subjects, — vessel, passen- 
gers, beach, and inhabitants. It is evident that the prin- 
cipal subject is the passengers. The sentence should 
read, The vessel having made for the shore, the passen- 
gers soon crowded into the boats and safely reached the 
beach, where they were received with the utmost kind- 
ness by the inhabitants of the island. 

2. Relative Clauses. — Unity of thought is often 
destroyed by a loose arrangement of relative clauses. 
A sentence may properly contain two or more relative 
clauses having a common dependence upon the principal 
clause ; as, for example, — 



SENTENCES. 195 

" This is the most charming chapter in the story, which is 
full of pleasant incidents and which the reader will find well 
worth perusal." 

Here both relative pronouns refer to story. But in 
the sentence, " We had no lack of entertainment during 
the time which we spent in the city, which seems very 
gay and attractive," the relative clauses are wrongly 
used. The second which refers to city in the preceding 
relative clause. The first which refers to time. 

"And which." The following sentence illustrates a 
common error in construction : — 

"His is a style abounding in strength and vivacity and 
which never transgresses the bounds of literary propriety." 

It must be remembered that and is a co-ordinate con- 
junction, and that it should, therefore, join words or 
phrases or clauses which are of the same kind. In this 
sentence, and joins a participial phrase to a relative 
clause. Both modifiers may be made participial or both 
relative, as follows : — 

(a) His is a style abounding in strength and vivacity and 
never transgressing the bounds of literary propriety. 

(6) His is a style which abounds in strength and vivacity 
and which never transgresses the bounds of literary propriety. 

3. Too Many Ideas. — Ideas which have no close 
connection should not be crowded into the same sen- 
tence. Long and rambling sentences are very likely to 
contain other faults besides lack of unity. 

Ex. " As we drove along, we met a young lady in full 
lawn-tennis costume, and passed a house where there was a 
handsome flower-garden and where Mr. Gray lives, who is 



196 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

the teller of the bank and who owns a superb St. Bernard 
dog." 

4. Parentheses. — Avoid the use of parentheses. A 
parenthesis is commonly a sign of careless construction. 

Ex. " One day last week (Wednesday, I think) we went 
nutting." 

In the following sentence, the parenthesis is allowable, 
but a division into two sentences would be a better 
arrangement : — 

"Then said the Shepherds, 'From that stile there goes a 
path that leads directly to Doubting-Castle, which is kept by 
Giant Despair ; and these men (pointing to them among the 
tombs) came once on pilgrimage, as you do now, even until 
they came to that same stile.' " 

5. Supplementary Clauses. — When the expression 
of a thought is apparently complete, no additional 
clause should be " tacked on " at the end. 

Ex. " There is to be a grand wedding next week, to 
which we are all to be invited ; or, at least, so I hear." 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Which of the special rules is violated? 

(b) Correct the sentence so as to maintain unity of thought. 

1. There are eighteen hundred figures on the front of 
the cathedral, and its two steeples are unequal in height. 

2. Many a man (and good ones, too) goes the downward 
way, for want of a helping hand. 

3. After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where 
I was welcomed by all my friends, who received me 
with the greatest kindness. 



SENTENCES. 197 

4. I saw a chair which once belonged to James K. Polk 
— one of the presidents, you know. 

5. His companion was a short, stout man, with a gray 
beard and bushy hair, and as they approached the top, 
Rip heard noises like peals of thunder. 

6. Washington died of the sore throat, and was six feet 
three inches tall. 

7. They told stories and read newspapers that were 
months old, that were left by some traveler on his way 
to the Catskills, which were then and are now noted for 
their scenery. 

8. Can you not see that one can do whatever he sets his 
heart upon doing — if it is possible ? 

9. There are people (and their name is legion) who have 
no aim in life but to have a good time. 

10. A violent storm drove me to the coast of Sardinia, 
which is free from all poisonous herbs except one, 
which resembles parsley and causes those who eat it to 
die of laughing. 

11. Dr. Kane described the Arctic silence as sometimes 
almost dreadful ; and one day at dinner, while Thack- 
eray was quietly smoking and Kane was fresh from his 
travels, he told them a story of a sailor reading Pen- 
dennis. 

12. People have the most disagreeable habit (when I 
wear this hat) of staring at me. 

13. They fly swiftly and mostly by day, and their food 
consists of seeds and berries and small shell-fish. 

14. I went to town last week — about the only thing I did. 

15. The most important rules, definitions, and observa- 
tions, and which are therefore the most proper to be 
committed to memory, are printed in large type. 



198 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

16. I could not go, but the girls went, and when the party 
was over, it was moonlight, and so the ride home was 
very delightful. 

17. You will probably be at home by New Year's, I 
haven't a doubt. 

18. He found the roof fallen in, and there was a skinny 
dog running about that looked like Wolf, and he called 
him by name, but the dog turned around and showed his 
teeth. 

19. His death was due to nervous prostration, and he had 
reached the age of forty-seven years. 

20. We stopped at Dijon, and though the town has been 
ransacked many times, it still shows its antiquity. 

21. While Mary remained with us, our family expenses 
doubled, our food disappeared in the most marvelous 
manner, the dishes that she broke were numerous, and I 
finally lost patience. 

22. We met a man who was riding horseback on the road 
which leads through the woods. 

23. The very day that John left us and I finished reading 
" Dombey and Son," a storm came on, which wet the 
hay that Father had been so careful about. 

24. We may be sure of the unconsciousness with which 
the following passage was written, in a letter from a 
lady to a friend from whom she had been alienated, and 
who sent her a present which she felt some delicacy in 
accepting. 

25. Their eldest son studied for the ministry, but he has 
never preached, that I know of. 

26. The horses stood still, but we got out, and the snow 
was coming down very fast, so the path was difficult to 
find, but home was at last reached. 



SENTENCES. 199 

27. Barnes continued (so wicked a wretch was he) to 
poison their minds against the innocent lad. 

28. The first appearance of the hermitess in Westchester 
County, New York State — for her cave was in this 
county — was at the house of my mother's grandfather, 
who was a deacon in the Presbyterian church. 

29. The basement and nearly all of the first floor are com- 
pleted, as far as the exterior goes. 

30. But they were quite as pleased with one another (and 
perhaps even more so) as though they had each uttered 
the most remarkable witticisms. 

31. For generations to come the old house will open its 
hospitable doors, unless somebody comes along and 
tears it down. 

32. The doctor was called, and the sick man rallied, but 
as night came on, the storm increased, and no word came 
from the fort. 

33. The place was approached through a pasture-field, — 
we had found it by mere accident, — and where the 
peninsula joined the field (we had to climb a fence just 
there) , there was a cluster of chestnut and hickory trees. 

STRENGTH. 

General Rule. — A sentence should be so con- 
structed that the thought which it contains shall be ex- 
pressed with all possible force. Energy and Animation 
are other names for this quality. 

Special Rules. 

1. Unnecessary Words. — Cut out all words which 
do not add anything to the meaning. 



200 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The error of using too many words has three mani- 
festations : — 

Tautology, Redundancy, and Circumlocution. 

(a) Tautology consists in repeating the thought 
Ex. " Silence reigned, and not a sound was heard." 

(6) Redundancy consists in using words which are 
not necessary to the sense. 

Ex. " Collect together all the fragments." 

(c) Circumlocution consists in using " round-about " 
expressions. 

Ex. " One of those omnipresent characters, who, as if in 
pursuance of some previous arrangement, are certain to be 
encountered in the vicinity when an accident occurs, ven- 
tured the suggestion." 

This is a round-about way of saying, "A bystander 
advised." 

2. Words of Connection. — The strength of a sen- 
tence is increased by careful use of the words of con- 
nection. 

(a) Avoid " stringing" clauses together loosely with 
and as a connective. 

Ex. " They were soon at home and surrounded by the 
family and plied with questions as to what they had seen and 
what they had heard and soon the neighbors came in and 
then the whole story had to be told again." 

In this sentence, there is lack of unity as well as lack 
of strength. 

In a sentence containing a series of words or expres- 
sions in the same construction, insert conjunctions be- 



SENTENCES. 201 

tween each two words or expressions if the intention is 
to make the mind dwell upon each particular. 

Ex. " And the rain descended, and the floods came, and 
the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell : and 
great was the fall of it." 

But when the author's object is to give a many-sided 
view of a subject, or to convey the idea of rapid move- 
ment, the conjunction should be omitted. 

Ex. " Charity beareth all things, believeth all things, 
hopeth all things, endure th all things." 

" One effort, one, to break the circling host ; 
They form, unite, charge, waver, — all is lost ! " 

(5) Do not weaken the sentence by the omission of 
the relative pronoun. Such omissions are allowable in 
familiar conversation, but rarely in careful writing. 

Ex. " The idea [which] he is working on is fraught with 
great possibilities." 

(e) Do not have two prepositions govern the same 
noun. This awkward construction is called " splitting 
particles." 

Ex. " He ran by, but did not look into, the windows." 
Better : He ran by the windows, but did not look into them. 

3. Contrasts. — Contrasted members of a sentence 
should be similar in construction. 

Ex. " The President holds the Executive power of the 
land, but the Legislative power is vested in Congress." 

The contrast is more forcible if we say, The Presi- 
dent holds the Executive power of the land ; but Con- 
gress, the Legislative power. 



202 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. Conclusion. — The mind naturally dwells upon 
the last part of a sentence. Care should, therefore, be 
taken to have the last word a forcible one. Avoid clos- 
ing a sentence with an insignificant word or phrase ; 
as, for example, an adverb or a preposition or such a 
phrase as to it, by it, etc. 

Ex. " That is a danger which young children are exposed 

to: 

The sentence should read, That is a danger to which 
young children are exposed. 

Ex. " None but capital letters were used formerly ." 

The idea is more forcibly presented if we say, For- 
merly, none but capital letters were used. 

Exceptions. — The adverb and the preposition may 
come at the close of the sentence when they are very 
closely related to the verb ; as, for example, in the ex- 
pressions, to laugh at, to lay hold of, to clear up, to urge on. 

An adverb may properly close a sentence in an antith- 
esis, where the adverbs are the contrasted words. 

Ex. "In their prosperity, my friends shall never hear of 
me ; in their adversit}^ always: 7 

It should be noted, also, that if we have to choose 
between a weak ending and a stiff, unnatural arrange- 
ment, the former is the less serious fault. 

" It would have been well for him if he had thought 
of it " is better English than, It would have been well 
for him if he of it had thought. 

5. Climax. — Whenever it is possible, arrange words 
and clauses so as to make an effective climax. The last 



SENTENCES. 203 

clause of a sentence and the last paragraph of an essay 
should ordinarily be the strongest one. 

Example of faulty climax: "Where shall I find hope, 
happiness, a clear conscience, friends, money?" 

Corrected: " Where shall I find money, friends, hope, 
happiness, and a clear conscience ? " 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Which of the special rules is violated ? 

(b) Change the sentence so as to increase its strength. 

1. He seems to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. 

2. Summer is warm but extremely pleasant ; while winter 

brings gloomy days and cold. 

3. My goat, my children, my dog, I shall never, never see 

again. 

4. Will you please raise up this window? 

5. Opening the portfolio, she found it contained several 

poor little sketches. 

6. They always entered school together every morning. 

7. From appearances, she seemed to be a stranger. 

8. The birds were singing their lays of thanks and grati- 

tude. 

9. The glen is an extremely beautiful and delightful spot. 

10. Insects, men, beasts, are all creatures of God's hand. 

11. Some sow good seed, and others deposit in the ground 

that wliich can yield no harvest. 

12. The freshet destroyed life and property and washed 

away thousands of hencoops. 

13. Maud is extravagantly fond of those exquisitely beauti- 

ful water lilies which are so extremely abundant on 
the lake. 

14. It is a great privilege to assemble and meet together. 



204 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

15. On account of the small number of seats available, no 

ladies will be admitted, only the men. 

16. Do not judge a book by its cover; neither should we 

choose a man for a friend because he is handsome. 

17. They are descended from, but are not closely related to, 

the present generation of the Taylors of Portchester. 

18. I am extremely glad to see you, and exceedingly sorry 

that I have kept you waiting so terribly long. 

19. Phidias, the most renowned sculptor the world has ever 

seen, has never had an equal, before or since. 

20. The youngest soon reappeared again with some of his 

father's cast-off clothing on. 

21. The least that is said on the subject, the soonest it will 

be mended. 

22. The glory of man, his power, his greatness, depend on 

essential qualities. 

23. From whence did he come? 

24. He took it from, and would not return it to, the child. 

25. The monument towers to a lofty height towards the sky. 

26. Do you see that monstrous large bird which this very 

minute flew out of the identical tree under which you 
are sitting? 

27. He saw before him ruin, defeat, disaster, and broken 

health. 

28. The gentle old lady was deceived by false misrepre- 

sentations. 

29. Philadelphia is the largest in extent, but New York con- 

tains a greater number of inhabitants. 

30. He walked to the table and took up his hat and bade 

adieu to his host and took his departure. 

31. The Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his 

absolute power in Hungary that he exposed the empire 
doubly to desolation and ruin for the sake of it. 

32. She is a novice ; that is to say, a green hand at making 

bread. 



SENTENCES. 205 

33. The pain was almost intolerable to be borne. 

34. Sit down and take a seat. 

35. She regrets that the multiplicity of her engagements pre- 

cludes her accepting your polite invitation. 

HARMONY. 

General Rule. — A sentence should be constructed 
with due regard to a pleasing effect upon the ear. 

It must be evident, that while Harmony is a very 
desirable quality of sentences, it is less important than 
Clearness, Unity, or Strength. In applying the special 
rules, therefore, care should be taken not to sacrifice 
the sense to the sound. 

Special Rules. 

1. Pleasant Sounds. — Pleasantness of sound, or 
Euphony, as it is called, is best secured by avoiding the 
use of words, or combinations of words, which are diffi- 
cult to pronounce. The most melodious words are such 
as contain a blending of vowels and consonants, espe- 
cially if some of the consonants are liquids. Compare 
the following, as to Euphony : — 

" He arbitrarily singled out an inexplicably scrubby shrub 
and peremptorily reprimanded the giggling, but shame-faced, 
Driggs for having haggled all the shrubbery instead of prop- 
erly pruning it." 

" I love the old melodious lays 

Which softly melt the ages through, 
The songs of Spenser's golden days, 
Arcadian Sidney's silvery phrase, 

Sprinkling our noon of time with freshest morning 
dew." Whittier. 



206 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Examples of disagreeable combinations of sounds : — 
He will wilfully persist ; I can candidly say ; in an analo- 
gous case. 

2. Needless Repetition. — Avoid repeating the same 
word in a sentence or a paragraph. Aim to secure . 
variety of expression. 

Ex. " The general ordered the captain to order the sol- 
diers to observe good order" 

Better : The general directed the captain to see that the 
soldiers observed good order. 

3. Rhythm. — The words should be so arranged that 
the accents shall come at intervals convenient for the 
reader or speaker. The harmonious flow of sounds 
made by the rise and fall of tone is called Rhythm. No 
definite rules for the arrangement of accents can be 
given. The ear must be trained to recognize any inter- 
ruption to the smoothness of sound. 

Take the following sentence from Irving : — 

4 'It is delightful, in thus bivouacking on the prairies, to 
lie awake and gaze at the stars ; it is like watching them 
from the deck of a ship at sea, when at one view we have 
the whole cope of heaven." 

It is evident that there is something wrong in the 
sentence. "It doesn't sound right," would be a very 
natural criticism. If we examine the sentence, we shall 
find that between the words "watching" and "heaven" 
are nineteen successive monosyllables. 

Such a sentence may be greatly improved by insert- 
ing one or two longer words in place of the short ones. 
A succession of words of one syllable is very likely to 
destroy the rhythm of a sentence. 



SENTENCES. 207 

4. Cadence at the Close. — Words should be so 
arranged as to give an agreeable cadence at the close of 
a sentence. By cadence is meant the falling of the 
voice. Avoid closing a sentence with a small word or 
with a succession of unaccented syllables. 

Such a construction is lacking in strength as well as 
in harmony. Words of three syllables, accented on the 
second, and words of four syllables, accented on the first 
and third, make pleasant cadences. 

Ex. de-light f -ful ; in-ter-ces'-sion. 

Example of faulty cadence : — 

" In the farming districts, where the people are fully as 
well educated as those of any rural district in the United 
States, the servants form part of the family circle at the 
table, around the hearth-stone, or in the pew at church ; they 
share the best sleeping apartments of the family, wear just 
as good clothing as the master and mistress, and the maids, 
if they are pretty, get as much attention from masculine 
visitors as the daughters of the house, too" 

5. Adapting the Sound to the Sense. — Whenever 
it is possible, and particularly in description and narra- 
tion, the sound should be adapted to the sense. The 
use of the figure onomatopoeia, which has already been 
explained, gives vividness and animation to the style. 

A fine example of this kind of harmony is given by 
Longfellow in " The Courtship of Miles Standish " : — 

" Silently out of the room then glided the glistening savage, 
Bearing the serpent's skin, and seeming himself like a 

serpent, 
Winding his sinuous way in the dark to the depths of the 

forest." 



208 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Compare these two descriptions from Milton's " Para- 
dise Lost," one referring to the opening of the gates of 
Heaven ; the other, of the gates of Hell : — 

" Heaven opened wide " On a sudden, open fly 

Her ever-during gates, harmo- With impetuous recoil and 

nious sound, jarring sound, 

On golden hinges turning. ,, The infernal doors ; and on 

their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder." 

Poe's poem, "The Bells," Southey's "Cataract of 
Lodore," Tennyson's "Bugle Song" and "Brook," are 
more extended illustrations. 

EXEEOISE. 

(a) Explain the lack of harmony. 
(6) Correct the sentence. 

1. The gas up blazes with its bright white light. 

2. In India, innocent infants are thrown into the Ganges. 

3. To two tunes, I have made up nry mind never to listen. 

4. One cannot imagine what a monotonous being one 

becomes if one constantly remains turning one's 
self in the circle of one's favorite notions. 

5. The public library will be of special value, especially to 

young men. 

6. Which witch was first burned? 

7. I can can fruit better than Mother can. 

8. She said, loud enough for those near to hear, " What a 

fright ! " 

9. Looking up, the cobbler saw approaching a stranger of 

very strange appearance. " Good morning," said 
the stranger. 

10. Starting again, he heard his name called again. 

11. 'Twas thou that soothedst the rough rugged bed of pain. 



SENTENCES. 209 

12. Some chroniclers, by an injudicious use of familiar 

phrases, express themselves sillily. 

13. The rules of emphasis come in in interruption of your 

supposed general law of position. 

14. A mild child is liked better than a wild child. 

15. If the major had wished to communicate anything of 

importance, why did he not come here and say it? 

16. Base natures joy to see hard hap happen to them they 

deem happy. 

17. Even is come, and from the dark park, hark ! 
The signal of the setting sun, one gun ; 

And six is setting from the chime, prime time 

To go and see the Drury Lane Dane slain. Thomas Hood, 

18. He had been gone from the village twenty years, and 

what was one night to him on the mountains was in 
reality twenty years. 

19. The trees over our heads formed a leafy curtain, as it 

were. 

20. There was now but a little of the opening remaining 

above water. It was like the arch of a bridge, under 
which rushed the foaming water. Leaning forward 
the engineer saw a black object floating on the water. 

21. The reason is that one is constantly enjoying himself all 

the time by the countless beauties which he sees, so 
that when he returns home, it seems as though he had 
not seen half the scenes which there are to be seen. 

22. It is safe to say that Rome in her palmiest days never 

had such a combat as that. 

23. " Well," he exclaimed, " this is truly rural ! " 

24. He used to use many expressions not usually used. 

25. She said that that that that that sentence contains is an 

adjective. 



210 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE SUBJECT "SENTENCES." 
Kinds of Sentences. 

r 1. Simple. 
Grammatical. < 2. Complex. 
( 3. Compound. 

1. Periodic. 

2. Loose. 

3. Balanced. 
Short and Long. 

Construction. 



Rhetorical. 



I. Clearness. 



II. Emphasis. 



III. Unity. 



IV. Strength. 



V« Harmony. -< 



1. Adverbs. 

2. Modifiers in General. 

3. Pronouns. 

4. Squinting Construction. 

1. Principal Subject. 

2. Principal Predicate. 

1. Change of Subject. 

2. Relative Clauses. 

3. Too Many Ideas. 

4. Parentheses. 

5. Supplementary Clauses. 

r Tautology. 

1. Unnecessary Words. ■< Redundancy. 

( Circumlocution 

2. Words of Connection. 

3. Contrasts. 

4. Conclusion. 

5. Climax. 

( 1. Pleasant Sounds. 

2. Repetition. 

3. Rhythm. 

4. Cadence at Close. 

\ 5. Adapting Sound to Sense. 



SENTENCES. 211 

MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES. 

1. The Hindoos, when they see the black disk of our satel- 

lite advancing over the sun, believe that the jaws of 
a dragon are gradually eating it up. 

2. All the crew were rescued, although all were almost 

frozen. 

3. Mr. French killed a burglar just as he was entering his 

door. 

4. He that hath passed many stages of a good life, to pre- 

vent his being tempted to a single sin, must be very 
careful that he never entertain his spirit with the 
remembrances of his past sins. 

5. In the middle of the Campus is an inclosed space where 

the body of Augustus was burnt, also constructed of 
white stone, surrounded with an iron rail, and planted 
in the interior with poplar trees. 

6. There is a story of a father whom his son resolved to 

rob. Having left unguarded the key of his escritoire, 
as if through forgetfulness, the thief rushed towards 
the gold. 

7. If we all combine our forces together, we shall be strong 

enough to resist. 

8. The reception which the actor received when he stepped 

upon the stage was enthusiastic and prolonged to an 
almost unprecedented degree. 

9. Fruit-owners became exasperated over such petty thefts, 

and it was only a day or two ago that a man who has 
a fine grape-arbor and several fruit-trees called and 
asked the judge if he could not shoot boys that tres- 
passed on his place with pepper and salt. 
10. Butter for sale. We have received a shipment this 
morning of 500 tubs. The quality is fine and put up 
in new firkins. 



212 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

11. The famous poisoned valley of Java (Mr. Loudon, a 

recent traveller in that region, tells us that it is filled 
with skeletons of men and birds) has proved to be 
the crater of an extinct volcano. 

12. Another girl, eight years of age, secreted and saved 

herself under the flooring of the house, whose hus- 
band, in later years, was one of the trustees of Whit- 
man College. 

13. The houses are built of small yellow bricks which were 

brought from Holland, with latticed windows and 
gable fronts surmounted with weather-cocks. 

14. The settler here the savage slew. 

15. During Tuesday's thunder-shower, the lightning killed 

a child and struck a large chestnut-tree on the top of 
Great Hill, breaking a piece of it off. 

16. I shall grant what you ask readily. 

17. We also get salt from the ocean, which is ver}~ useful to 

man. 

18. A steel engraving is suspended from the back end of 

the hall, of the " Heroes of the Revolution." 

19. The old woman used to tell us how her son died in a 

way that took the color from our childish faces. 

20. And so, amid the laughter of my friends, aged 25 years, 

weighing 114 lbs., never having sowed an oat or 
milked a cow, I laid away the yardstick and took 
up the fork and hoe. 

21. The Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as we. 

22. John Keats, the second of four children like Chaucer 

and Spenser, was a Londoner. 

23. I rashly once, and only once, tried to keep up with him 

on a snow-slide, and only succeeded in making myself 
feel, from my head to my heels, like a very-much- 
grated nutmeg. 



SENTENCES. 213 

24. The quick-silver mines of Idria, in Austria (which were 

discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, catching some 
water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he 
could not move it, and the bottom covered with a 
shining substance which turned out to be mercury) 
yield every year, over three hundred thousand pounds 
of that valuable metal. 

25. The Great Stone Face was discovered while building a 

road through the Notch. 

26. She is a perfect woman ; or, at any rate, as nearly per- 

fect as ever a woman was. 

27. Human beings have and do inhabit these dreary regions. 

28. Everything is as clean as possible, which is scrupu- 

lously so. 

29. Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may 

often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune. 

30. This is the principle I refer to. 

N 31. I am an early riser, but my wife is a Presbyterian. 

32. A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. 

33. They saw sailing down the river in a dreadful proces- 

sion, dead bodies, roofs of houses, trees, cows, 
horses, and the surface of the water was strewn with 
boards. 

34. The beaux of that day used the abominable art of 

painting their faces as well as the women. 

35. The cellar of the school-house is still somewhat visible, 

in which a girl of thirteen years saved herself from 
the tomahawk in the massacre, and afterward became 
the wife of a Methodist minister. 
^"36. The West End is considerably worked up over the 
mysterious disappearance from home of Mr. Jenkins, 
who resides at 45 William St., without the knowledge 
of his friends and relatives. 
37. This is a hospital for old veteran soldiers. 



214 LESSONS IK ENGLISH. 

38. A polished copper plate is covered with varnish or wax 

prepared for the purpose, and upon it is drawn, line 
for line, as it is intended to appear on paper with a 
sharp needle, which scratches through the preparation 
on the plate, leaving it bare. 

39. He has already and will in the future, study German. 

40. Cheese are higher, and we think that we are lower than 

any other house in the city on the price. 
^41. Deceased was last seen by a policeman at 11 o'clock 
Wednesday night, on the New York dock, with his 
feet hanging over the pier conversing with a desper- 
ate thief. 

42. For Sale. New Mackerel in ten-pound kits and five- 

pound tins, heads and tails off. 

43. Hydrophobia (which is derived from two Greek words, 

meaning fear of water, and is so called from the 
aversion to that element which it produces in human 
patients suffering from its attack, though it seldom 
causes a similar aversion in the animal from whose bite 
it originates) sometimes does not display itself for 
months after the poison has been received into the 
system. 

44. He has the refusal of the lot which fronts Trumbull 

Street for a week. 

45. No one would have guessed the relations that had once 

existed (perhaps existed still) between these two. 

46. She then spoke and said, " What can I do for you, my 

poor child ? " 

47. The muffs carried this season — some of them at least 

— are very small. 

48. He should never marry a woman in high life that has 

no money. 

49. Just after the big sloops crossed the finish line, a heavy 

rain storm set in with a dense fog, and the finish of 



SENTENCES. 2l5 

the schooners and smaller classes could not be seen 
except from the judges' boat, and only with difficulty 
then. 

50. We soon came upon a little diminutive rivulet. 

51. The subject of which I shall now treat is not a subject 

of general interest ; but no other subject is of greater 
importance to the subjects of this kingdom. 

52. The remains of a man killed forty years ago were dis- 

covered, ploughing in Central Garden. 

53. The same artist's full-length portrait of Ex-President 

Hayes was sent to Harvard College, where it is to 
hang in the Memorial Hall, last week. 

54. The boat pushed off to the shore, but speedily returned 

with a dying man, which the Chinese had placed in 
the boat, who they affirmed had been mortally 
wounded from the blow which had been received from 
the piece of wood. 

55. My Christian and surname begin and end with the same 

letter. 

56. Soon the sky grew dark and then darker, until it was 

almost black, then the thunder began, and soon came 
the rain, and all nature was refreshed, but we were 
more than refreshed, as we could find no shelter. 

57. The mosaic portraits of one hundred and fifty bishops 

encrust the long surface above the finely- wrought 
round archways, which terminate in a tribune that is 
entered through a royal arch, inlaid with precious 
colors that have defied moisture and damp, and are as 
brilliant as when the ancient workmen embedded 
them there. 

58. We cannot excel in any work without attention to the 

trifling minutiae. 

59. The forbidding by husbands of the public to trust their 

wives occupies the papers in this vicinity a good deal 
of late. 



216 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

60. Alfred the Great was noted for the ease with which he 

remembered the songs of the minstrels and his taste 
for the literature of that time. 

61. I have just made arrangements for forwarding four 

bales of goods. 
^62. He blew out his brains after bidding his wife good by 
with a gun. 

63. But we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement 

though differing in measure, and which make different 
impressions on the ear. 

64. The weight of the skeleton alone [of a whale] was 

thirty-one tons, and was afterwards exhibited in Lon- 
don and Paris. 

65. These various delays delayed the commencement of the 

battle. 

66. We are both agreed that the sentence is wrong. 

67. The manufacture of China ware, which is employed both 

for useful and ornamental purposes in China, has been 
practised in that country from such an early period 
that tradition is even silent not only as to the date of 
its origin, but also as to the name of the individual to 
whom the nation is indebted for the discovery. 

68. The President is represented in life size and stands in 

front of a red curtain and by a chair covered with red 
stuff on which lie his coat, hat, and a roll of paper, 
engaged in conversation. 

69. Dr. Johnson was once arrested for a debt of five 

guineas, the author of the dictionary. 

70. No learning is generally so dearly bought, or so valu- 

able when it is bought, as the learning that we learn 
in the school of experience. 

71. Sacred to the memory of John Stone, who lost his life 

at sea while attempting to rescue a passenger who 
accidentally fell overboard, aged 19 years. 



SENTENCES. 217 

72. In colder waters they prey upon the white whale, that is 

somewhat sluggish in its movements, — at least, when 
compared to its murderous cousin. 

73. Few people learn anything that is worth learning easily. 

74. Mr. Carlyle has taught us that silence is golden in thirt}' 

volumes. 

75. At the Bed Men's base-ball game Friday afternoon, a 

victim of a fracture was made of a member of the 
Pootatuck nine : Johnson broke his left wrist. 

76. After meals they drink their coffee and smoke their cig- 

arettes, women as well as men. 

77. He received my remarks on the terrors which he seeks 

to inspire with great good nature. 

78. We have two school-rooms sufficiently large to accom- 

modate one hundred and fifty pupils, one above the 
other. 

79. In merely correcting the grammar, the sentence may be 

left inelegant. 

80. The reason I ask you to do this is because you don't 

seem to have anything else to do. 

81. Work has been resumed again at the feldspar quarry. 

It is carried to Bedford Station, on the Harlem Rail- 
road, and forwarded to New York. 

82. The instrument had been purchased (appropriately 

enough " f or a mere song") for Martha years ago. 

83. I never saw such a boy in my life. 

84. The spire of the church is one of the most beautiful in 

the state, and the interior has been decorated. 

85. We should constantly observe the way words are used 

by the best writers. 

86. A chain of confections in imitation of silver held the 

bird of wisdom to his candied perch, the links of 
which were as nicely made as the links of a watch- 
chain. 



218 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

87. Cheops built the largest pyramid in Egypt which bears 

his name. 

88. She had a child in the carriage that she called Alphonso. 

89. The carriage stopped at the small gate which led by a 

short gravel walk to the house amidst the nods and 
smiles of the whole party. 

90. Each clergyman declares aloud that he believes it a 

dozen times every year of his life. 

91. After the great flood at Mill River (the havoc caused by 

which is vividly remembered by the Connecticut Leg- 
islature which visited the scene of the disaster) he 
took the contract for rebuilding the bridges. 

92. If I mistake not, I think I have seen you before. 

93. The leaves of plants radiate the heat which comes to 

them from the sun with great rapidity. 

94. From the deacon's house she wandered to the mountains 

and found this cave, by what means no one ever knew, 
and made it her home, as she called it. 

95. His estimate, then, is that the industrious and skilled in 

all trades are better off or in improved circumstances 
to an extent that should be admitted, as most decided 
and perceptible, over their condition and circumstances 
ten years ago. 

96. The Gilyaks rank several degrees lower in the scale of 

beauty, or rather the lack of it. 

97. We did not find anything in the domestic architecture 

very characteristic and which spoke even in the mild- 
est way of Roman power or Gothic force. 

98. He is a man of truth and veracity. 

99. We fear that Mother will never recover back her health 

again . 

100. She is fairer, but not so amiable as her sister. 

101. Homer was the greater genius, but Virgil is thought to 

have excelled him as an artist. 



SENTENCES. 219 

102. The following is a cop} r in the handwriting of a lady 

who died 110 years ago of Quaker "grace before 
meat'' in Philadelphia. 

103. Having been in Paris for the express purpose of select- 

ing the very newest that the Parisian market affords, 
you are most respectfully invited to call and inspect, 
assuring you that you will find my stock of special 
interest. 

104. I notice your advertisement for an organist and music- 

teacher, either lady or gentleman. Having been 
both for several years, I offer you my services. 

105. The committee would further recommend some change 

in the internal arrangements of the building, as a 
large number of seats have long been occupied by 
the scholars that have no backs. 

106. Her own story was that she had a quarrel with the 

deceased, first about her wages, and secondly about 
the soup, and that she seized the deceased by the 
throat, and she fell, and when she got up, she was 
looking for something to strike her with, and upon 
this she struck the deceased a blow on the throat, 
and she fell and died almost instantaneously. 

107. The kangaroo is the largest quadruped yet discovered 

in Australia, measuring, when full grown, about five 
feet from the tip of the nose to the tail, the tail 
being about three feet, and weighing about one 
hundred and fifty pounds. 

108. You have already been informed of the sale of Ford's 

Theatre, where Mr. Lincoln was assassinated, for 
religious purposes. 

109. The name of our teacher is Miss Merton, and a very 

good one when she cares to be. 

110. Homer was not only the maker of a nation, but of a 

language and of a religion. 



220 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

111. As we came along the road, we came to a field where 

a very pleasant-faced peasant was making hay. 

112. The very things which I needed for the journey which 

I was going to make were not to be procured in the 
little village which was then my home. 

113. She is a widow woman with two twin daughters. 

114. Mr. Brooks played a very noble overture. 

115. A shell exploded to-day at the Waxholm fort, com- 

manding the approach to the city, killing nineteen 
men and wounding many others, including three 
officers. 

116. Thanking our many customers for their patronage in 

the past and hoping to serve them better in the 
future will be the ambition of the firm. 
Nl 17. Wanted, a horse for a lady, weighing about nine hun- 
dred pounds. 

118. The sort of weed which I most hate (if I can be said 

to hate an} T thing which grows in my own garden) is 
the " pusley," a fat, ground-clinging, spreading, 
greasy thing, and the most propagatious (it is not 
my fault if the word is not in the dictionary) plant 
I know. 

119. Died. In this city, August 3, Kate, only child of 

John and Mary Smith, and grandchild of Jacob 
Smith, aged six months. 

120. Strayed or Stolen. From the vicinity of Lake Whit- 

ney, a bay mare with a white star in her forehead, 
hitched to a business wagon, running part yellow. 

121. He never spoke to me, never sought to make his pres- 

ence an intrusion in any way ; he irritated me, never- 
theless. 

122. It was just at this time that the handwriting appeared 

upon the wall which Daniel interpreted. 



SENTENCES. 221 

123. Wanted, a nurse for a child two years old, who is a 
good seamstress. 
"*\l24. When that tremendous clap of thunder came, every- 
body thought he was struck within a radius of a 
mile. 

125. One morning when they arose to their astonishment 
they saw a beautiful marble palace built for King 
Cadmus. 



REFERENCES. 

Lectures on Rhetoric. Blair. 

Composition and Rhetoric. Hart. 

Elements of Rhetoric and Composition. D. J. HilL 

Principles of Rhetoric. A. S. Hill. 

Practical Rhetoric. Clark. 

Essentials of English. Welsh. 

Complete Rhetoric. Welsh. 

Complete Rhetoric. Bardeen. 



222 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Uses of Punctuation Marks. — The chief uses of 
punctuation marks are the following : — 

1. To make the meaning clear. 

2. To show the grammatical construction. 

Value of Correct Punctuation. — The following 
illustration furnishes abundant proof that the study of 
punctuation is too important to be neglected. With 
one style of punctuation, we have the following star- 
tling statement : — 

6 ' Every lady in this land 
Hath twenty nails upon each hand ; 
Five and twenty on hands and feet. 
And this is true, without deceit" 

By a slight change of punctuation, the true meaning 
becomes apparent : — 

" Every lady in this land 
Hath twenty nails : upon each hand 
Five ; and twenty on hands and feet. 
And this is true, without deceit." 

General Rules for Punctuation. — Learn to punc- 
tuate a sentence while you are writing it, indicating by 
the proper marks the grammatical relations between 



PUNCTUATION. 223 

the parts of the sentence. Many pupils form the bad 
habit of writing a whole paragraph and then sprinkling 
in the commas afterwards. This is almost as bad as it 
would be to write the paragraph and then go over it to 
dot the i's and cross the £'s. Remember that, while 
punctuation is, to some extent, a matter of individual 
taste and judgment, there are certain fixed rules which 
every person of fair education is expected to observe. 
These special rules will be considered in order. 

The Most Common Punctuation Marks. — The 

points most frequently used are the Comma, the Semi- 
colon, the Colon, and the Period. The Period marks 
the close of a sentence. The Comma, the Semicolon, 
and the Colon mark three degrees of separation in the 
parts of a sentence. The Comma should be used to 
indicate the smallest degree of separation; the Semi- 
colon, a greater degree ; and the Colon, the greatest of 
all. This simple rule may be illustrated by the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. Three of the most important modern languages are the 

French, the German, and the English. 

2. Three of the most important modern languages are the 

French, which is the most graceful; the German, 
which is the most forcible ; and the English, which 
contains the good elements of both the others. 

3. Three of the most important modern languages are the 

following : the French, which is the most graceful ; 
the German, which is the most forcible ; and the 
English, which contains the good elements of both 
the others. 



224 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

SPECIAL KULES FOE, THE COMMA. 

Rule 1. Words or Phrases in Pairs. — Words or 
phrases in pairs should have a comma placed after each 
pair. 

Ex. " Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give 
my hand and my heart to this vote." 

" The sunny morning and the gloomy midnight, the bleak 
winter and the balmy spring, alike speak to us of the 
Creator's power." 

Rule 2. Contrasted Words or Phrases. — Words or 
phrases which are contrasted with each other should be 
separated by commas. 

u We live in deeds, not years." 

" There are few voices in the world, but many echoes." 

Rule 3. Inverted Expressions. — Phrases and 
clauses which, by inversion, are placed at the begin- 
ning of sentences, should be followed by commas. 

Ex. " Wearied by his London life, Irving started for a 
tour on the Continent." 

" In front, the view stretches away to the Brighton mead- 
ows and hills." 

Rule 4. Introductory and Parenthetical Expres- 
sions. — Words and phrases which are used to intro- 
duce a sentence, or which are thrown loosely between 
other parts of the sentence without being essential to 
its meaning, should be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas. 

Ex. " N<^w, if there was one quality on which that gen- 
tleman prided himself more than on another, it was the 
superiority of his manners." 



PUNCTUATION. 225 

" I think, also, that ' The Vision of Sir Launfal ' owed its 
success quite as much to a presentation of nature as to its 
misty legend." 

Rule 5. Intermediate Expressions. — Expressions 
which are not parenthetical, but which come between 
two important parts of the sentence, as between subject 
and predicate, between the predicate verb and the direct 
object, or between the parts of a quotation, should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Ex. " The vessel, you must understand, was so long and 
broad and ponderous that the united force of all the fifty was 
insufficient to shove her into the water." 

" I am the king's daughter," she said to him, " and my 
name is Medea." 

Note. — If the intermediate expression is restrictive, 
so that it is inseparable in idea from what precedes, no 
comma should be used. 

Ex. The tree by the garden gate was blown down last 
night. 

The subject of the verb is not The tree, but The tree 
by the garden gate. The expression by the garden gate 
is, therefore, said to be restrictive, since it restricts the 
meaning of the word tree to one particular object of the 
kind. 

Rule 6. A Series of Words or Phrases. — Words 
or phrases in the same construction, forming a series, 
should ordinarily be separated from each other by 
commas. 

Ex. " The sea carried men, spars, casks, planks, bul- 
warks, heaps of such toys, into the boiling surge." 



226 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Note 1. — If there are but two words or phrases, 
and they are connected by a conjunction, no comma is 
needed. 

Ex. "We think with reverence and gratitude of their 
toils and sacrifices." 

Note 2. — If there are more than two words or 
phrases, with a conjunction between each two, no com- 
mas are needed. 

Ex. " The back of the chair was curiously carved in 
open work, so as to represent flowers and fruit and foliage." 

Note 3. — If the last two words or phrases are not 
connected by a conjunction, a comma should be placed 
after the series, unless what follows is a single word or 
a short expression very closely connected with the 
series. 

Ex. " The katydids, the grasshoppers, the crickets, make 
themselves heard." 

" We are fearfully, wonderfully made." 

" One deep, intense, ominous silence pervades that dan- 
gerous assembly." [Close connection.] 

I 
Note 4. — If the conjunction is omitted except be- 
tween the last two words, the letter usage is to place a 
comma before the conjunction. 

Ex. " The Teutonic invaders belonged to three tribes, — 
the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles." 

Note 5. — If two or more adjectives precede a noun, 
they should not be separated from each other by com* 
mas, unless they are in the same construction. 

Ex. She wore a pair of soiled white kid gloves. 



PUNCTUATION. 227 

Notice that while kid qualifies gloves, white qualifies 
the phrase kid gloves ; and soiled, the phrase white kid 
gloves. These three adjectives are not, therefore, in 
the same construction, and do not form a series. 

Rule 7. Nouns in Apposition, — Words in apposi- 
tion should, with their modifiers, be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas. 

Ex. u When Jason, the son of the dethroned King of 
IolchOs, was a little boy, he was sent away from his parents, 
and placed under the queerest schoolmaster that ever you 
heard of." 

Note 1. — If one of the terms in apposition is a gen- 
eral title, the comma should be omitted. 

Ex. Queen Artemisia built the famous Mausoleum. 
The poet Lowell is a native of Cambridge. 

Note 2. — A title or a degree, following the name of 
a person, should be separated from the name by a 
comma. 

Ex. Address John W. Dixon, Secretary. 

Eev. T. T. Munger, D.D., is the author of "On the 
Threshold." 

Note 3. — If the pronoun is used with the noun, 
for emphasis or in direct address, the comma may be 
omitted. 

Ex. " Hawthorne himself could scarcely have imagined a 
wilder, stranger story." [Emphasis.] 

" Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are 
too superstitious." [Address.] 

Rule 8. Nouns Independent by Address. — Nouns 
or phrases which are independent by direct address 



228 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

should be separated from the rest of the sentence by 
commas. 

Ex. " Go along, my good Jason, and my blessing go 
with you." 

Note. — If strong emotion is to be indicated, the ex- 
clamation point should be used instead of the comma. 

Ex. " Accursed tree!" cried the chief justice, gnashing 
his teeth, " would that thou hadst been left standing till 
Hancock, Adams, and every other traitor were hanged upon 
thy branches ! " 

Rule 9. Nouns in the Case Absolute. — Expres- 
sions containing the case absolute should be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Ex. " Peace being declared between France and England 
in 1748, the governor had now an opportunity to sit at his 
ease in Grandfather's chair." 

Rule 10. Relative Clauses. — A relative clause 
which is not restrictive but which presents an additional 
thought, should be separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by commas. 

Ex. " The man, who proved to be an escaped convict, had 
in his possession one of the missing papers." [Additional 
thought.] 

" The man who had first spoken then arose and asked the 
attention of the audience." [Restrictive.] 

Note 1. — If tJie relative pronoun is immediately fol- 
lowed by a word or a phrase inclosed in commas, a 
comma should be placed before the relative clause, 
whether restrictive or not. 



PUNCTUATION. 229 

Ex. " How beautiful the long, mild twilight, which, like 
a silver clasp, unites to-day with yesterday ! " 

Note 2. — A restrictive relative clause should be pre- 
ceded by a comma, if several words come between the 
relative pronoun and its antecedent. 

Ex. " No American could have died, who would have 
been more universally mourned than Longfellow." 

Note 3. — If the relative pronoun refers to each of a 
series of nouns, it should be separated from the series 
by a comma. 

Ex. "He had hopes, fears, and longings, which his 
friends could not share." 

Rule 11. Dependent and Conditional Clauses. — 

Dependent and conditional clauses, commonly intro- 
duced by such words as if, when, unless, though, etc., 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by 
commas, unless the connection is very close. 

Ex. u If youth are taught how to think, they will soon 
learn what to think." 

" Were all these changing beauties of form and color to 
disappear, how unsightly, dull, and dreary would be this 
world of ours ! " 

Hawthorne was four years old when his father died. 
[Close connection.] 

Rule 12. Co-ordinate Expressions. — In continued 
sentences, the co-ordinate clauses, if simple in con- 
struction, should be separated by commas. 

Ex. Captain Hull then took a key from his pocket, I 
unlocked the chest, and together we lifted its ponderous lid. 



230 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Rule 13. Omission of a Verb. — In continued sen- 
tences, containing a common verb, the omission of this 
verb in any clause except the first should be marked 
by a comma. 

Ex. " Carthage has crossed the Alps ; Rome, [has crossed] 
the seas." 

Rule 14. Short Quotations. — Short quotations, or 
expressions resembling quotations, should be preceded 
by commas. 

Ex. It has been well said, u The tongue is a little mem- 
ber and boasteth great things." 

The question now is, How shall we know what are good 
books ? 

EXEKCISR 

Punctuate the following sentences, giving the rule for 
each comma. 

1. The books which help you most are, ihose which make 

you think most. 

2. One of the best books I ever read, u Little Women" 

was written by Miss Alcott. 

3. The first lady^wore a large bonnet; the second .a small 

bonnet ; and the third, no bonnet at all. 

4. On the shelves of this cupboard used to lie bundles of 

sweet marjoram and pennyroyal ,and lavender and 
mint and catnip. 

5. The turtles head .tail and claws were striped yellow, 

black and red. j *> ? 

6. Silks rustled^ plumes waved, and jewelled embroideries^ 

flashed from Genoa velvet. 

7. As a rule i the French are fond of fine funerals. 

8. Isaac's father being dead, Mrs Newton was married 

again to a clergyman. 



PUNCTUATION. 231 

9. " Well said wise man with the one sandal" cried he. 

10. Truth to say he was a conscientious man and ever bore 
in mind the golden maxim " Spare the rod and spoil 
the child." 

11." Like many authors /Whittier has been attracted in the 
autumn of his life f to the rich fields of Oriental lit- 
erature. 

12. Death thinned their ranks,but could not shake their souls. 

13. While leading this quiet y uneventful life Hawthorne.be- 

gan to keep note-books in which he recorded what he 
saw on his walks what he heard other people say, and 
thoughts and fancies that came to him through the 
day and night 

14. They are not lost,but only gone before. 

15. Irving was born in 1783; Longfellow in 1807; and 

Holmes in 1809. A 

16. A good motto for you, my young friends/is, Make haste 

slowly. 

17. The things which after all sharply distinguish Holmes 

from other poets are the lyrics and metrical essays, 
composed for special audiences and occasions. 

18. Longfellow loved the lights and beacons the mist and 

fog-bells the sleet and surge.of winter. 

19. There are chance pictures of Acadian fields New World 

rivers y prairies f bayous , forests by moonlight, and star- 
light and midday ; glimpses too of picturesque figures ( 
artisans and farmers^ soldiery, trappers , boatmen emi- 
grants and priests. 

20. Nothing y great or good r can be accomplished without 

labor and toil. 

21. Whittier's story " The Rattlesnake Hunter" is based 

upon this fact. 

22. "-Be ready to come when I ring the bell" said the old 

lady. 



232 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

23. Miss Margaret had deep calm } honest blue eyes and 

wavy light brown hair. 

24. Critics ,historians essayists and poets ,who had long been 

Hawthorne's friends Joined in the procession to the 
grave beneath the pines. 

25. "I was moderately studious" says Doctor Holmes " and 

very fond of reading stories which I sometimes did in 
school hours." 



RULES FOR THE SEMICOLON. 

Rule 1. Subdivided Members of Compound Sen- 
tences. — If the members of a compound sentence are 
complex in construction, or if they contain commas, 
they should be separated by semicolons. 

Ex. " The seed which you sow is not lost ; and the good 
which you do is not forgotten." 

"Holmes is, like Lowell, a humorist; but, like Lowell, he 
knows how to be earnest, serious, and even pathetic." 

Rule 2. Short Sentences connected in Meaning. — 

Short sentences which have some connection in mean- 
ing, but no grammatical dependence upon one another, 
should be separated by semicolons. 

Ex. "The blue sky now turned more softly gray; the 
great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes ; the east began to 
kindle." 

Note. — If the sentences are short, simple in meaning, 
and very closely connected, they should be separated by 
commas. 

Ex. " The fire burns, the water drowns, the air consumes, 
the earth buries." 



PUNCTUATION. 233 

Rule 3. Clauses having Common Dependence. — 

Clauses which have a common dependence upon another 
clause should be separated from one another by semi- 
colons. If the clause upon which they all depend comes 
at the beginning of the sentence, the clauses should be 
separated from it by a comma; if it is placed at the end 
of the sentence, the comma should be followed by a 
dash. 

Ex. " Science declares, that no particle of matter can be 
destroyed ; that each atom has its place in the universe ; and 
that, in seeking that place, each obeys certain fixed laws." 

"The darkening foliage; the embrowning grain; the 
golden-fly haunting the blackberry bushes ; the cawing crows, 
that looked down from the mountain on the cornfield, and 
waited da}' after day for the scarecrow to finish his work and 
depart ; and the smoke of far-off burning woods that per- 
vaded the air and hung in purple haze about the summits of 
the mountains, — these were the avant-couriers and attend- 
ants of the hot August." 

Rule 4. Additional Clauses. — A clause which is 
added to a complete sentence by way of explanation, 
should be preceded by a semicolon, if the clause is intro- 
duced by a conjunction. 

Ex. " The water of the river Lethe has one very excellent 
quality ; for a single draught of it makes people forget every 
care and sorrow." 

Note. —When a rule is followed by an example intro- 
duced by the word as, a semicolon should be placed 
before as, and a comma after it. 

Ex. Almost should be used in the sense of nearly; as, 
The winter is almost gone. 



234 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Rule 5. Particulars in Apposition to General 
Term. — When several particulars are in apposition to 
a general term, and are simple in form, they should be 
separated from one another by commas, and from the 
general term by a semicolon. 

Ex. Cambridge has given us three noted writers ; Holmes, 
Lowell, and Longfellow. 

Sentences, as considered in Grammar, are of three kinds ; 
namely, Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

EXEEOISE. 

Punctuate the following sentences, giving the rule for the 
use of each comma and semicolon. 

1 . As in ascending the lofty peaks of the Andes we at 
length arrive at a line where vegetation ceases and the 
principle of life seems extinct! so in the gradations of 
human character } there is an elevation which is never 
attained by mortal man. 

2. Emerson tells us to hitch our wagons to a StarBand it 
is a good thing when a romance has a permanent place 
among the guide-books. 

3. Examinations are formidable, even to the best pre- 
pared ! for the greatest fool may ask more than the 
wisest man can answer. 

4. The robins are not good solo singers but their chorus 
as like primitive fire-worshippers they hail the return of 
light and warmth ,to the world is unrivalled. 

5. Concord has been the home of four famous men] 
namely Thoreau ; Alcott jEmerson ^nd Hawthorne. 

6. The singing of the great wood-fires J the blowing of 
the wind over the chimney tops as if they were organ 



PUNCTUATION. 235 

pipes ^he splendor of the spotless snow the purple wall 
built round the horizon at sunse^ the sea-suggesting 
pines with the moan of the billows in their branches on 
which the snows were furled like sails the northern 
lights the stars of steel the transcendent moonlight and 
the lovely shadows of the leafless trees upon the snow 
these things did not pass unnoticed or unremembered. 

7. To be really wise, we must labor after knowledge^ to 
be learned ; we must study 'to be greatjin anything we 
must have patience. 

8. The science of numbers ^measures the earth it weighs ' 
the stars it illumines i the universe it is law order and 
beauty. 

9. A fishermanit is true had noticed her little foot-prints 
in the sand. as he went homeward along the beach with a 
basket of fish; a rustic had seen the child stooping to 
gather flowers , several persons had heard either the rat- 
tling of chariot wheels or the rumbling of distant thunder . 
and one old woman ; while plucking vervain ? and catnip 
had heard a scream. 

10. Bryant was robust/but not tyrannical 7 , frugal .but not 
severe 'grave yet full of shrewd and kindly humor. 

11. Wherefore teach them their multiplication table good 
Master Cheever and whip them well when they deserve 
it for much of the country's welfare depends upon these 
boys. 

12. You remember that Bryant first won his fame by a 
hymn to death and so I think the first poem of Long- 
fellow's which won recognition for him was that transla- 
tion of those sounding Spanish lines which exalt the 
majesty of death and sing the shortness of human life. 

13. These tourists insist that Emerson lived in Thoreau's 
Hermitage 1 that Thoreau was present at Concord fight 



236 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

collecting the arrow-heads of the invaders ! that Alcott 
wrote "The Scarlet Letter" that Hawthorne wore a 
black veil; ate only vegetables; and never looked upon 
the light of day. 

RULES FOR THE COLON. 

Rule 1. Subdivided Members of Compound Sen- 
tences. — If two members of a compound sentence are 
subdivided by semicolons, they should be separated 
from each other by a colon. 

Ex. "Very good," replied the dial: " but recollect that, 
though you may think of a million strokes in an instant, you 
are required to execute but one ; and that, however often 
you may hereafter have to swing, a moment will always be 
given you to swing in." 

Rule 2. Additional Clauses. — If a clause which is 
added to a complete sentence is not introduced by a con- 
necting word, it should be preceded by a colon. 

Ex. "He who seldom thinks of heaven is not likely to 
get there : the only way to hit the mark is to keep the eye 
fixed upon it." 

Rule 3. Formal Quotations. — A quotation which 
is formally introduced should be preceded by a colon. 
If the quotation begins on a new line or occupies sev- 
eral paragraphs, the colon should be followed by a dash. 

Ex. His voice, exerted to its utmost power, penetrated 
every recess and corner of the Senate, as he pronounced, 
in deepest tones of pathos, these words of solemn signifi- 
cance : " When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last 
time, the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the 
broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union." 



PUNCTUATION. 237 

" He read on a marble tablet in the chapel wall opposite, 
this singular inscription : — 

; Look not mournfully into the Past. It comes not back 
again. Wisely improve the Present. It is thine. Go forth 
to meet the shadowy Future, without fear, and with a manly 
heart.'" 

Rule 4. Particulars in Apposition to General 
Term. — When several particulars in apposition to a 
general term are complex in form, they should be sepa- 
rated from one another by semicolons and from the 
general term by a colon. 

Ex. Cambridge has given us three noted writers : Holmes, 
who is known as u The Autocrat"; Lowell, whose quaint 
Yankee humor sparkles in u The Biglow Papers" ; and the 
gentle author of "Evangeline," our loved and lamented 
Longfellow. 

EXEKCISE 

Punctuate the following sentences, giving the rule for 
each comma, semicolon, and colon. 

1. Some critics are like chimney-sweepers they put out 
the fires below or frighten the swallows from their nests 
above they scrape a long time in the chimney cover 
themselves with soot and bring nothing away except a 
bag of cinders and then sing from the top of the house 
as if they had built it. 

2. Error is a hardy plant it flourishes in every soil. 

3. We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men 
are created equal that the}' are endowed by their Crea- 
tor with certain inalienable rights that among these are 
life liberty and the pursuit of happiness. 



238 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

4. Macaulay says of Burleigh's biographer and biogra- 
phy " Such a book might before the deluge have been 
considered as light reading but unhappily the life of 
man is now threescore years and ten and we cannot but 
think it somewhat unfair in Dr. Nares to demand from 
us so large a portion of so short an existence." 

5. During the last winter New England has won another 
victory not in depth of snow and thickness of ice for 
those are ancient and familiar triumphs of the pine over 
the palm. 

6. The perfect purity of the air one breathes the pro- 
cesses of ventilation which are constantly going on the 
sense of security even when the winds are whistling 
about your frail shelter all these things combine to make 
the tent a bedroom so delicious that the fate of Endy- 
mion would become a blessing. 

7. King Midas found on his plate not a gold-fish but a 
gold fish its little bones were golden wires and its scales 
were thin plates of gold. 

8. The English language is composed of two principal 
elements the Saxon and the Classical. 

9. The English language is composed of two elements 
the Saxon which includes the Danish Swedish and other 
related languages and the Classical which includes the 
Latin and the Greek. 

10. Youth fades love droops the leaves of friendship fall 
A mother's secret hope outlives them all. 

EULES FOE THE PEEIOD. 

Rule 1. Completed Sentences. — The period should 
be used to mark the completion of every sentence 
which is neither interrogative nor exclamatory. 



PUNCTUATION. 239 

Ex. This rule does not, of course, apply to short sen- 
tences which form a series. 

Rule 2. Abbreviations. — Every abbreviation should 
be followed by a period. 

Ex. Rev. Timothy Dwight, D.D., LL.D. 
Insert these corrections on pp. 34 and 56 of the MS. 
See Matt. 10 : 7, 8 ; 1 Sam. v. 1-4. [Both styles of 
punctuation are authorized by good usage.] 

EXEEOISE. 
Punctuate the following sentences : — 

1. For parallel accounts of this incident see Mark 5 21 43 

Luke 8 40 56 Matt ix 18 31. See also John xv 
12 13. 

2. Bought 1 bbl flour at $12.50 3 bush corn at 87£c 24 

lbs sugar at 9c 3 gal molasses at 37-Jc 2 lbs tea at 
62^c 6 lbs coffee at 15c and 4 lbs butter at 22c 
what was the cost of the whole ? 

3. Sold to J P F mdse as follows 

Jan 18 1862 on 6m 75 yd cloth at $4 $300 

Mar 12 " " 3m 600 gal molasses at 33£c $200 
June 15 " " 4m 50 bbl flour $8 $400 

Write the proper abbreviations for the following expres- 
sions : — 

1. Anonymous, manuscripts; in the year of our Lord; 

Bachelor of Arts ; Connecticut, Maine, California, 
Florida, Illinois, Minnesota, Dakota Territory, West 
Indies. 

2. Noon, afternoon, forenoon ; Member of Congress, Fel- 

low of the Royal Society, Doctor of Laws ; Monsieur, 
Madame, Messieurs, Mademoiselle ; South Latitude, 
East Longitude. 



240 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

RULES FOR THE INTERROGATION POINT. 

Rule 1. Direct Questions. — Every direct question 
should be followed by an interrogation point. 

Ex. " Are you awake, Prince Theseus?" she whispered. 
[Direct.] 

The gentle Ariadne came to his door, and asked in a whis- 
per if he was awake. [Indirect.] 

Note 1. — Sometimes the sentence is not expressed 
in the interrogative form, and only the point at the end 
shows that it is meant to be a question. 

Ex. " You have sometimes been on a railway train when 
the engine was detached a long way from the station you 
were approaching?" 

Note 2. — Several distinct questions in a series re- 
quire an interrogation point after each question. 

Ex. What was the fate of Regulus? of Hannibal? of 
Cleopatra ? of Julius Cjesar ? 

What was the fate of the following persons : — 
Regulus? Hannibal? Cleopatra? Julius Caesar? 

Rule 2. Doubt. — To express doubt as to the accu- 
racy of a statement, place after it an interrogation point 
inclosed in marks of parenthesis. 

Ex. In the year 1805 (?) Irving made his first voyage 
across the Atlantic. 

RULES FOR THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

Rule 1. Expressions of Emotion. — The exclama- 
tion point should be used after every expression of 
strong emotion. 



PUNCTUATION. 241 

Ex. " He is dead, the sweet musician ! 

He the sweetest of all singers ! 
He has gone from us forever, 
He has moved a little nearer 
To the Master of all music, 
To the Master of all singing ! " 

Note 1. — To express increasing intensity of emotion, 
the double and triple marks of exclamation are some- 
times used. 

Ex. And in his ears will ring forever the awful words, 
Too late ! Too late ! ! Too late ! ! ! 

Rule 2. Doubt or Sarcasm. — The exclamation 
point may be used to indicate that the expression is 
sarcastic, or that the writer has some doubt about the 
truth of the statement. 

Ex. You set us a good example, your own temper is so 
angelic ! 

That man a poet ! He looks more like a cowboy. 

Rule 3. Interjections. — The exclamation point 
should be used after interjections and after other words 
which are used as interjections. 

Ex. " Alas ! " said he with a sigh. 

''Peace! Peace! Why dost thou question God's provi- 
dence ? " 

Note 1. — The interjection should be used with a 
noun of address and should not be immediately followed 
by the exclamation point. By the most careful writers, 
Oh is not used with words of address ; and it is imme- 
diately followed by the exclamation point, unless the 
emotion continues throughout the sentence. 



242 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Ex. " Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! " 

u Oh ! there is something in that voice that reaches 

The innermost recesses of my spirit." 
" Oh, what a cruel fate is mine ! " 

Note 2. — Authorities differ as to whether Oh or 
should be used to express a wish. It seems better to 
use for this purpose ; and Oh merely as an exclama- 
tion of surprise, pain, or grief. 

Ex. " O that those lips had language ! " 
Oh ! how you frightened me ! 

Note 3. — If an interjection is repeated, a comma may 
be used to separate the words, and the exclamation point 
may be used only at the end, if it is not the writer's 
intention to make each of the words emphatic. 

Ex. Ha, ha, ha ! That's the best joke I have heard this 
many a day ! 

Aha ! aha ! I've caught you this time ! [Emphasis.] 

EXEEOISE. 

1. " Ah me " he exclaims at another time " what strains 
of unwritten verse pulsate through my soul when I open 
a certain closet in the ancient house where I was born." 

2. Then comes the sudden rain-storm and the birds fly 
to and fro and shriek. Where do they hide themselves 
in such storms at what firesides dry their feathery cloaks 

3. u Turn out you lobsterbacks " one would say "Crowd 
them off the sidewalks" another would cry "A redcoat 
has no right in Boston streets " 

4. Make haste Prince Jason For your life make haste 

5. I hear a voice that cries " Alas alas 
Whatever hath been written shall remain 



PUNCTUATION. 243 

Nor be erased nor written o'er again 

The unwritten only still belongs to thee 

Take heed and ponder well what that shall be " 

6. And hop'st thou hence unscathed to go 
No by St Bride of Bothwell no 

7. Take cold indeed He doesn't look like one of the sort 
to take cold Besides he'd better have taken cold than to 
have taken our umbrella 

8. O North and South 
Its victims both 
Can ye not cry 

u Let slavery die" 

And union find in freedom 

9. Throned in thine ebon chair O Poet may 
We bring thy brow a wreath 

10. " Stay at home pretty bees fly not hence 
Mistress Mary is dead and gone " 

How like Wordsworth it sounds Who can read this 
immortal little poem without tears springing to his eyes 

EULES FOR THE DASH. 
Rule 1. Abrupt Changes. — The dash should be 
used to mark sudden changes in sentiment and in 
construction. 

Ex. She never raised her voice in wrath — 
She never banged her hair ! 
Have you ever seen — but of course you never have ! 

Rule 2. Rhetorical Pauses and Repetitions. — 

The dash may be used to mark pauses and repetitions 

which are intended for elocutionary effect. 

Ex. " The king of France, with twice ten thousand men, 

Marched up the hill, and then — marched down again." 



244 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

At last she said, between her sobs, "I — want — to see 
— the — ele — elephant/' 

"If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while 
a foreign troop were landed in my country, I would never 
lay down my arms — never, never, never ! " 

Rule 3. Parenthetical Expressions. — Dashes may 
be used instead of commas or marks of parenthesis, 
before and after expressions which have a closer con- 
nection with the rest of the sentence than would be 
indicated by the marks of parenthesis. 

Ex. "Her little bird — a poor slight thing the pressure 
of a finger would have crushed — was stirring nimbly in its 
cage ; and the strong heart of its child-mistress was mute 
and motionless forever." 

Note. — If the sentence, written without the paren- 
thetical expression, would require a comma at that 
point, commas should be inserted before the dashes. 

Ex. "The different portions are supposed to be related 
b}' five persons, — a lawyer, a clergyman, a merchant and 
his daughter, and the poet, — who are all sight-seeing in the 
White Mountains." 

Rule 4. Dependent Expressions. — A series of 
phrases or clauses depending upon a concluding clause 
should be separated from it by a comma and a dash. 
An example is given under Rule 3 for the Semicolon. 

Rule 5. Detached Expressions. — Expressions com- 
ing at the end of an apparently completed sentence but 
referring back to some part of the sentence should be 
preceded by a dash. 



PtTNCTtJATIOtf. 245 

Ex. u Anon the bells ceased, and the woods, and the 
clouds, and the whole village, and the very air itself seemed 
to pray — so silent was it everywhere. " 

Rule 6. Omissions. — The dash is used to mark the 
omission of letters and figures. 

Ex. Mrs. H d, formerly Miss A r of B Street, 

was then called the belle of the city. 

Hawthorne spent the winter of 1851-52 at West Newton, 
near Boston. 

See Matt. x. 4-7. 

EXEEOISE. 

Punctuate the following sentences, giving the rules for all 
the points which you insert. 

1 . But the folk-lore of the early days where is it 

2. Several of our most famous authors studied law 
Irving Bryant Longfellow Holmes and Lowell. 

3. Our hearts our hopes our prayers our tears 
Our faith triumphant o'er our fears 

Are all with thee are all with thee. 

4. Approaching the head of the bed where my poor 
young companion with throat uncovered was lying with 
one hand the monster grasped his knife and with the 
other ah cousin with the other he seized a ham. 

5. Good people all with one accord 
Lament for Madam Blaize 
Who never wanted a good word 
From those who spoke her praise. 

6. The Hermit of Amesbury the Wood-thrush of Essex 
the Martial Quaker the Poet of Freedom the Poet of 
the Moral Sentiment such are some of the titles be- 
stowed upon Whittier by his admirers. 



246 lessons m English. 

7. Statues paintings churches poems are but shadows of 
himself shadows in marble colors stone words. 

8. Hawthorne's complaints about his pens are really 
very amusing to those people and their name is legion 
who have had a like difficulty in pleasing themselves. 

9. I awoke from this dream of horror and found that I 
was grasping the bedpost. 

10. Take the poets we proclaim as greater than Long- 
fellow Browning for instance or Emerson and how 
often they fail to express their thoughts so that anybody 
can enjoy them without a course of lessons from an ex- 
perienced professor, 

RULES FOR QUOTATION MARKS. 

Rule 1. Direct Quotations. — Every direct quota^ 
tion should be inclosed in quotation marks. 

Ex. " I would send such a man," said he, " in quest of 
the Golden Fleece." [Direct.] 

The king replied that he would send such a man in quest 
of the Golden Fleece. [Indirect.] 

Note 1. — If the quotation is somewhat altered in 
form, it may be inclosed in single quotation marks. 

Ex. May we ever hear ' the voice from the sky like a 
falling star — Excelsior ! ' 

Note 2. — A quotation consisting of several para- 
graphs requires the inverted commas at the beginning 
of each paragraph, but the apostrophes at the end of the 
last one only. 

Rule 2. Included Quotations. — A quotation which 
is included within another should be inclosed by the 
single quotation marks. 



PUNCTUATION. 247 

Ex. " On one occasion," says Whittier, " I was told that 
a foreigner had applied to my mother for lodging. ' What 
if a son of mine was in a strange land?' she said to her- 
self." 

Rule 3. Quoted Titles. — Titles of books, essays, 
etc., should be inclosed by quotation marks or else 
printed in Italics. This rule applies to quoted words 
and phrases. 

Ex. " The House of the Seven Gables" was warmly 
welcomed, both at home and abroad. 

There is no possible solution to the dark enigma but the 
one word — u Providence." 

EXEEOISE. 

Punctuate the following sentences and explain your use 
of the quotation marks. 

1. Pooh cried Uncle John impatiently let us have some 
music 

2. Had he said the captain black whiskers and a red coat 
No answered Anne with a sigh he had red whiskers and 
a black coat 

3. A knot can choke a felon into clay 

A not will save him spelt without the 7c 

4. Did you ever tell him what I said Johnny Ignorance 
is bliss and all the rest of that nonsense 

5. After the appearance of Longfellow's poem Weari- 
ness Hawthorne wrote in a letter to a friend I too am 
weary and look forward to the Wayside Inn. 

6. The Essex minstrel has written quite a number of 
childrens poems such as The Robin Red Riding Hood 
and King Solomon and the Ants 



248 LESSOHS IK EKGLISH. 

7. Come to Concord wrote Ellery Charming to Hawthorne 
once upon a time Emerson is away and nobody here to 
bore you. 

8. Bryant's biographer says The aged poet wrote to a 
friend Is there a penny-post do you think in the world 
to come Do people there write for autographs to those 
who have gained a little notoriety Do women there send 
letters asking for money 

9. The word buxom formerly meant obedient How odd 
the commandment in its old form sounds to our modern 
ears Children be buxom to your parents 

10. A school teacher tells the following story To the ques- 
tion who was Esau a boy wrote this remarkable answer 
Esau wrote a famous book of fables and he sold the 
copyright of them for a bottle of potash. 

THE MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 

Rule. — The marks of parenthesis should inclose ex- 
pressions which have even less connection with the rest 
of the sentence than would be indicated by the use of 
dashes or commas 

Ex. "Phoebus (for this was the very person whom they 
were seeking) had a lyre in his hands, and was making its 
chords tremble with sweet music." 

Note 1. — In reports of speeches, the marks of paren- 
thesis are used to inclose the name of a person who has 
been referred to ; also to inclose exclamations of approval 
or disapproval on the part of the audience. 

Ex. "The honorable gentleman (Mr. Hoar) has referred 
to my war record (hear, hear)." 



PUNCTUATION. 249 

Note 2. — If some mark of punctuation — for ex- 
ample, a comma — would be required if there were 
no parenthesis, the same mark should be used in addi- 
tion to the marks of parenthesis. If the parenthetical 
expression is exclamatory or interrogative, the comma 
should be placed before the first curve ; and either the 
exclamation point or the interrogation point, before the 
second curve. Otherwise, the comma should be placed 
after the last mark of parenthesis. 

Ex. "Once, to be sure (as was recorded on an obelisk, 
three feet high, erected on the place of the catastrophe), 
Antaeus sat down upon about five thousand Pygmies, who 
were assembled at a military review." 

" First flinging his crown and sceptre into the sea, (useless 
baubles that they were to him now !) King ^Egeus merely 
stepped forward and fell headlong over the cliff." 

THE BRACKETS. 

Rule. — The brackets should be used to inclose words 
or phrases which are entirely independent of the rest of 
the sentence. They are usually comments, queries, 
corrections, criticisms, or directions, inserted by some 
other person than the original writer or speaker. 

Ex. " New England has more weather to the square inch 
than any other country on the globe." [Laughter.] 

"Governor Winthrop tells us of visiting Agawam, and 
spending the Sabbath with them [whom?], as they were with- 
out a minister." 

Each received one in their [his] turn. 

[Enter the Fairies.] O Queen, we salute thee ! 



250 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

OTHER MARKS OF PUNCTUATION. 

The Apostrophe. — The apostrophe is the sign of 
the possessive case, and it also denotes the intentional 
omission of a letter or letters. 

Ex. The moon's calm beams shone o'er the earth. 

The Caret. — The unintentional omission of a word 
or phrase should be marked by a caret. 

living 

Ex. " The true glory of a nation is in the A temple of 
a loyal, industrious, and upright people." 

The Hyphen. — The hyphen is used to separate the 
elements of a compound word and to divide a word into 
syllables. 

Ex. Co-op-e-ra-tion ; long-suffering. 

\ EXEEOISE. 

Punctuate the following sentences and give rules for the 
brackets and marks of parenthesis : — 

1. Of the old garden surrounding the house Holmes has 
written eloquently and one can almost see it for himself 
with its lilac bushes its pear trees its peaches for they 
raised peaches in New England in those days its lovely 
nectarines and white grapes. 

2. Its the las time thet I shell eer address ye 

But you 11 soon find some new tormentor bless ye Tu- 
multuous applause and cries of Go on Dont stop 

3. Her mind was thronged with delightful thoughts till 
sleep stole on and transformed them to visions like the 
breath of winter but what a cold comparison working 
fantastic tracery upon a window. 



PUNCTUATION. 251 

4. This life has joys for you and I me 
and joys that riches neer could buy. 

5. Mr. Whittier said My acquaintance with him Garrison 
commenced in boyhood. 

6. Thou pretty opening rose 

Go to your mother child and wipe your nose 
Balmy and breathing music like the south 
He really brings my heart into my mouth. 

7. In one of the queerest corners of the town Marble- 
head there stands a house as modest as the Lee house 
was magnificent. 

8. The dealers sit cross legged in their little shelf like 
shops. 

9. The gentle and innocent creature for who could pos- 
sibly doubt that he was so pranced round among the 
children as sportively as a kitten. 

10. On rising Doctor Holmes held up a sheet of paper 
and said You see before you referring to the paper all 
that you have to fear or hope. 

RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Rule 1. First Word of a Sentence. — The first 
word of every sentence should begin with a capital. 

Rule 2. Lines of Poetry. — The first word of every 
line of poetry should begin with a capital. 

Rule 3. Direct Quotations. — The first word of 
every direct quotation should begin with a capital. 

Rule 4. Direct Questions. — The first word of every 
direct question should begin with a capital. 

Ex. Ask yourself this question : Are you making the 
most of your time and talents ? 



252 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Rule 5. I and O. — The words / and should 
always be capitals. 

Rule 6. Proper Nouns. — Every proper noun should 
begin with a capital letter. 

Rule 7. Words derived from Proper Nouns. — 

Words derived from proper nouns should begin with 
capitals, unless, by long usage, they have lost all associ- 
ation with the nouns from which they are derived. 

Ex. Christian from Christ; but currant from Corinth; 
Spanish, Mohammedan, to Romanize. 

Rule 8. Street, River, etc. — The words street, river, 
mountain, etc., should begin with capitals when they 
are used in connection with proper names. 

Ex. Chapel Street ; the Mississippi River ; Lake Whitney. 

Rule 9. North, South, East, and West. — The 

words North, South, East, and West should begin with 
capitals whenever they refer to parts of the country, 
and not simply to points of the compass. 

Ex. They have a daughter in New York and a son living 
in the West. 

Rule 10. Days, Months, and Seasons. — Names of 
the days of the week and the months of the year, but 
not the seasons, should begin with capitals. 

Rule 11. Words denoting* Family Relations. — 

Words denoting family relations, such as father, mother, 
uncle, etc., should be regarded as proper nouns and 
written with a capital letter when they are used with 
the proper name of the person or without a possessive 
pronoun. 



PUNCTUATION. 253 

Ex. I have had a letter from Mother ; or, I have had a 
letter from my mother. 

This knife was a present from Uncle John ; did your 
uncle give you one? 

Rule 12. Official Titles. — Titles of honor or office 
should begin with a capital whenever they are used in 
a formal way, or in connection with a proper name. 

Ex. The crown was once worn by King Henry V. 
The king sighed as he read the letter. 

Rule 13. Literary Titles. — In writing the titles of 
books, essays, etc., every noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, 
and adjective should begin with a capital. 

Rule 14. Names of the Deity. — All names of God 
and expressions which may be regarded as titles of the 
Deity should begin with capitals. So, also, a pronoun 
referring to God or Christ should begin with a capital 
whenever the meaning might otherwise be mistaken. 

Ex. " A voice saith, ' What is that to thee? 
Be true thyself, and follow Me ! ' " 

Rule 15. The Bible. — The words Bible, Scriptures^ 
etc., and all names of books and parts of the Bible 
should begin with capitals. 

Rule 16. Epochs and Events. — Words represent- 
ing important events in history and epochs of time 
should begin with capitals. 

Ex. The Revolution ; the Middle Ages. 

Rule 1 7. Personification. — Names of personified 
objects should begin with capitals. 



254 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXEEOISES. 

1. Write the following story with correct punctuation : — 

king frederick of prussia was one day travelling when 
he came to a village where he was to stay an hour or 
two so the king visited the school after a time he turned 
to the teacher and said he would like to ask the children 
a few questions on a table near by stood a large dish of 
oranges the king took up one of the oranges and said to 
what kingdom does this belong children to the vegetable 
kingdom replied one of the little girls and to what king- 
dom does this belong said he as he took from his pocket 
a piece of gold to the mineral kingdom she answered 
and to what kingdom then do I belong my child he 
asked thinking of course she would answer to the ani- 
mal kingdom the little girl did not know what answer 
to make she feared that it would not seem right to say 
to a king that he belonged to the animal kingdom well 
said the king can you not answer my little lady the kind 
w r ords and gentle look of the king gave the child cour- 
age and looking up into his face she replied to the king- 
dom of heaven sir the king deeply moved placed his 
hand upon her head and said god grant that I may be 
found worthy of that kingdom 

2. Punctuate the following in two ways, expressing very 

different ideas : — 

Lord palmerston then entered on his head a white hat 
upon his feet large but well polished boots upon his 
brow a dark cloud in his hand a faithful walking stick 
in his eye a menacing glare saying nothing. 

3. Punctuate the following anecdote : — 

Mr. Longfellow used to tell the following incident I 
was once riding in london when a laborer approached 



PUNCTUATION. 255 

the carriage and asked are you the writer of the psalm 
of life I am will you allow me to shake hands with you 
we clasped hands warmly the carriage passed on and I 
saw him no more but I remember that as one of the 
most gratifying compliments I ever received because it 
was so sincere. 

4. Punctuate the following in two ways : one to represent a 

very bad man ; and the other, a very good man. 

He is an old man and experienced in vice and wicked- 
ness he is never found in opposing the works of iniquity 
he takes delight in the downfall of his neighbors he 
never rejoices in the prosperity of his fellow-creatures 
he is always ready to assist in destroying the peace of 
society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is 
uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his 
friends and acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring 
to promote the cause of Christianity he has not been 
negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize all public teach- 
ers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions he 
strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid 
to the support of the gospel among the heathen he con- 
tributes largely to the devil he will never go to heaven 
he must go where he will receive the just recompense of 
reward . 

5. Write the following extract, with careful attention to 

punctuation and arrangement. 

As bess ran she was suddenly stopped at the gate by 
the sight of a carriage which had just driven up and out 
of which now stepped aunt maria and aunt maria's hus- 
band uncle daniel these were the very grimmest and 
grandest of all the relations for one awful moment bess 
stood stunned then her anxiety for torn overcame every 
other consideration and before aunt maria could say 



256 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

how do you do elizabeth she caught her uncle by his 
august coat tail and in a piteous voice besought him to 
come and pull on the rope pull on a rope elizabeth said 
uncle daniel who was a very slow man why should I pull 
on a rope my dear oh come quick hurry faster toms 
down in the well cried bess torn down a well how did he 
get there he went down for the teapot sobbed bess the 
silver teapot and we cant pull him up again and hes 
cramped with cold oh do hurry uncle daniel leisurely 
looked down at torn then he slowly took off his coat and 
as slowly carried it into the house stopped to give an 
order to his coachman came with measured tread to the 
three frightened children then took hold of the rope 
gave a long strong calm pull and in an instant torn drip- 
ping with- coolness arose from the well. 



REFERENCES. 

Hand Book of Punctuation. Turner. 
Treatise on Punctuation. Wilson. 
Hand Book of Punctuation. Bigelow. 
Essentials of English. Welsh. 
Practical Rhetoric. Clark. 



LETTER -WRITING. 257 



CHAPTER IX. 

LETTER -WRITING. 

To the Teacher : — 

It is recommended that Letter- Writing be taken up very early 
in the course and that frequent practice be given in connection 
with other kinds of composition-writing. The " Five Minute Exer- 
cises " will furnish suggestions for making the practice both pleas- 
ing and profitable. 

In the small space which can here be devoted to the subject, it 
is impossible to quote examples. The teacher should read to the 
class good specimens of the various kinds of correspondence, select- 
ing them, to a great extent, from the authors studied in class. 
Encourage pupils to express themselves in an easy, natural style. 
Read to them some of Thackeray's letters and show them the 
illustrations. By all means, let them read some of the famous 
" William Henry Letters," by Mrs. Diaz. 

Importance of Practice in Letter -Writing". — 

Letter- Writing is, perhaps, the most important division 
of composition work, since it is the most practical. 
After you leave school, you may never be called upon 
to write a formal essay or a fictitious story ; but all 
through life there will be occasions for writing letters 
of business and of friendship. It is, therefore, very 
important that you should know what are the requisites 
of a good letter. We shall consider two divisions of 
the subject : — 

1. The Form of a Letter. 

2. The Essential Qualities. 



258 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

FORM OF A LETTER. 

Parts of a Letter. — In considering the form of a 
letter, we notice first the parts of which it is composed. 
They are as follows : — 

I. The Heading. I L ^ lace * 

5 (2. Date. 



II. The Introduction. I 

1 2. 

III. The Body of the Letter. 



Address. 
Salutation. 



IV. The Conclusion. i L Complimentary Close. 

( 2. Signature. 

V. The Superscription, j L Name ' 
( 2. Place. 



The Heading'. — The Heading may occupy only a 
single line ; but if the name of the place be given in 
detail, it is better to write the place on one line, and the 
date on the line below. The place for the Heading is 
on the first line or two of the page, and well towards 
the right-hand edge. On a sheet of commercial note 
paper the first line is an inch and a half from the top 
of the page. If you use unruled paper, leave about 
the same space above your heading. In business letters 
and in any letter written to a stranger, you should be 
particular to give not only the name of the city or 
town from which you write, but also the street and 
number, if it be a city, or the county, if it be a village. 
If you prefer to do so, you may omit the details from 
this part of the letter and give them at the close, fol- 
lowing the signature. 



LETTER -WRITING. 259 

Examples of Headings. — In the following exam- 
ples, pay particular attention to the punctuation. 

1. 

fiowton, Tfta^., 7n&y 20, 188 J. 

2. 

hm&wilyub 2/, /886. 

3. 

It 6, I88J. 



Jrov. /6, 1885. 

The Address. — In writing to any person who is not 
an intimate friend, you should place at the beginning 
of your letter his name and address, followed by such a 
Salutation as Dear Sir, My dear Sir, etc. These partic- 
ulars make up the Introduction. The Address should 
begin on the line below the date, and at the left-hand 
side of the page, about half an inch from the edge of the 
paper. This half-inch margin at the left should be kept 
on every page of the letter. 

The Address may consist of one, two, or three lines, 
according to circumstances. In writing the name of a 
business firm, we do not use the plural Misters, but 



260 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

write instead Messrs., which is an abbreviation of Mes- 
sieurs, the plural of the French Monsieur. In formal 
letters which are not of a strictly business character, 
the Address is often placed at the close of the letter, in 
two lines, written below the Signature and at the left- 
hand side of the page. In familiar letters, it is custom- 
ary to omit altogether the formal Address. 

The Salutation. — The form of the Salutation will, 
of course, vary according to your relations with your 
correspondent. Dear Sir, the Salutation commonly 
used in business letters, is understood to be an expres- 
sion of respect rather than of affection. Remember that 
Dear Madam is the corresponding form to use in address- 
ing a lady who is a stranger to you. The French 
Madame is applied only to a married woman, but it is 
proper to address a lady as Dear Madam., whether her 
title be Mrs. or Miss. In writing to a business firm, 
your Salutation may be Dear Sirs or Grentlemen. If 
you wish to address an association or committee com- 
posed of women, the proper Salutation is Ladies. In 
writing the Salutation, begin with a capital the first 
word and the word which stands in place of the person's 
name. For example, Dear Friend, My dear Friend, 
My own precious Mother, My dear Uncle John. It was 
formerly the custom to begin each word of the Saluta- 
tion with a capital letter, but this is not now authorized 
by the best usage. The place for the Salutation is one 
of the points concerning which letter-writers may, to 
some extent, use their own taste. If there is no Address, 
the Salutation begins at the marginal line and on the 
line below the date. If the Address is given, the Salu- 



LETTER -WRITING. 261 

tation is commonly placed on the line below and a little 
to the right of the point where the last line of the 
Address begins. Some writers invariably place the Sal- 
utation at the marginal line and begin the body of the 
letter upon the same line, using a dash to break the 
connection. It is well to follow this usage when the 
Address contains more than two lines. In punctua- 
tion, also, usage varies. You will be safe, however, 
in observing the same distinction that is made before 
long and short quotations. If you are writing a brief 
note, place a comma after the Salutation ; if a long 
letter, use instead a colon. If the Body of the letter 
begins upon the same line with the Salutation, the 
comma or the colon should be followed by a dash. 

EXAMPLES OF INTRODUCTIONS. 

1. Note. 

rriu & cf. button, 

Jw v&fdly to ifowo viot&, &t&. 

2. Note. 

¥ qPoaA oft., fiflfrtcwi, TftouM,. 

$io / vtLb / YVLWv, — S ) L&a&& a&&vfeyt mnj 
tfbMv£&, ets. 



262 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

3. Letter. 



7Hj tkowqfvbb oftwv> ete>. 

4. Letter. 

13 ^u/m^cmt S ) t(M& / 
JbzaAs ^vv&. W-ilt you, oMa& Ofub 



The Body of a Letter. — As is shown in the pre- 
ceding examples, the main part of the letter may begin 
either on the same line with the Salutation or on the 
line below, under the point where the Salutation ends. 
Do not begin the Body of a letter with "I," if you can 
help it. While it is not a violation of rule, it is not in 
the best taste to make yourself so conspicuous. You 
can probably change the arrangement of the sentence so 
as to begin with some other word. Remember that the 
frequent repetition of " I " makes the writer appear to 
have an exalted idea of his own importance. In writing 
a letter, observe the same directions about margins and 
paragraphs as are given among the rules for composi- 
tion-writing. Do not close a letter abruptly. The last 
paragraph should be a sort of prelude to the Conclusion. 

The Complimentary Close. — The Conclusion is made 
up of two parts, — the Complimentary Close and the 
Signature. By the Complimentary Close, we mean the 



LETTER-WRITING. 263 

concluding words of respect or affection, such as Sin- 
cerely yours, Very truly yours, Respectfully yours, Your 
sincere friend, Your loving father. 

Only the first word should begin with a capital. The 
place for the Complimentary Close is on the line below 
the concluding words in the main part of the letter. 
A comma should always be placed after the Compli- 
mentary Close. 

The Signature. — The place for the Signature is on 
the line below the Complimentary Close. You should 
sign your name in full, in preference to writing only 
your initials or some pet name. If you are writing to a 
stranger, be careful to sign your name in such a way 
that he will understand how to address you in reply. 
Business men would be spared many embarrassments 
and vexatious delays if people were more considerate 
about signatures. Suppose that a firm doing a large 
business receive a letter of inquiry signed J. M. Hall. 
If the person is unknown to them, they may have to 
guess from the penmanship whether the writer is a man 
or a woman. If the latter, they cannot tell whether the 
title should be Miss or Mrs. A careful letter-writer 
would sign the name so that there would be no embar- 
rassment. Notice carefully the different forms: — 

1. fanv&Q, Tfl. /if all. 

2. (Tnaotvi) famvm, 771. /fail. 

3. {?J1Uq) futia, ?n. 

4. (#&*.) fuJbL*,7n. 



264 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

5. fndia, ?n. 



crl&(Ms& (M* 

7Hv&. (Z^LfvuA, <&. Wait, 

y-75 @Axyuyvi oft. 

The first is understood to be the signature of a man ; 
the second, that of a boy ; the third, that of a girl or an 
unmarried woman ; the fourth, that of a widow ; the 
fifth, that of a married woman whose husband is living. 

In the last of the following examples, the writer, who 
has a Christian name that may belong to either a man 
or a woman, is thoughtful enough to give his address, 
so that there can be no misunderstanding. 

EXAMPLES OF CONCLUSIONS. 

1 . TAM/tA found i&aaA/cL& ; cj i£yyn,aAyvi 

o^vri&e^&lu u(ywb Yuie/yucL, 

(olviaA&tA- fCeltcxfcf. 

^ fi-emAAf /if. &hafonLam>. 

Tftv. <o(£unm, i». 7M<yuQs&, 

3. (QV-&V, ^ruu oL&oA, L(y) / L(ft&ll(yw~ / taAJJvtatLlAU uowu tvC&not, 

4. c/ O/WU 



1&Oa0s& cicCcftb&a^ 

?Viv. €. 1/ft. IflasvieAmZeAVf 

Liv-aA/Jbool, €nqta/YicL. 



LETTER -WRITING. 265 

Postscripts. — A postscript is usually an admission 
of the writer's carelessness. It has been said that the 
most important part of a woman's letter is always found 
in the postscript ! Some writers are not content with 
one, but tack on several after-thoughts in this easy 
fashion. This habit is a bad one. The postscript is 
properly used when you wish to express something 
which is foreign to the subject of the letter, so that it 
would seem out of keeping with the rest if it were 
inserted in the main part of the communication. 

The Superscription. — The Superscription includes 
the particulars which you write upon the envelope. It 
is commonly arranged in three lines, but sometimes in 
four. The name should be written on an imaginary 
line drawn across the middle of the envelope. Place 
it so that there will be about as much space at the 
right of the name as at the left, unless the envelope is 
very long in proportion to the width, in which case the 
greater space should be at the left. Arrange the suc- 
cessive lines so that the initial letter of each shall be 
farther to the right than that of the preceding line. 
Keep uniform spacing between the lines. Do not rule 
the lines with a pencil. If you cannot write straight, slip 
inside the envelope a card ruled with heavy black lines 
to serve as a guide. You should gradually accustom 
yourself to do without help of this kind. As a matter 
of convenience to post-office clerks, it is well to write 
the street and number, or the number of the post-office 
box, in the lower left-hand corner. Write the Super- 
scription in your clearest and best style. Remember 
always to place the stamp on the upper right-band 
corner of the envelope. 



266 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



EXAMPLES OF SUPERSCRIPTIONS. 




Tfiv. fokn & Whittles, 




T/li&& @ZaAAk RacfeAA/, 

sA&w~ Lonclcm, 
9a90 2^6. &owvl. 



LETTER-WRITING. 



267 



/OO 3>oaJo Ma®&. 

Kindness of JVLr. Harper. 




Tflv. fawv&o, Jb-. l/O-kiX/wuyu,, 



Notes. — Notes may be classified as formal and in- 
formal. Formal notes include business notes and social 
notes. Informal notes are simply short letters of friend- 
ship. Social notes are such as pertain to the etiquette 
of social life and include polite notes of invitation, ac- 



268 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

ceptance, regret, condolence, and congratulation. Such 
notes should be written in the third person. The time 
and place of writing are written below the body of the 
note and at the left-hand side. The day of the week 
is usually mentioned, and the year omitted. 

SPECIMENS OF FORMAL NOTES. 
1. 

771vq/. QhasvicileA, / b&mo&&L& tA& / fi£&OQA{A,& at ?Htm> 
lAMhiX/vi&u* '& &omAiaswu cyyv lA^&cOrve^cLaA^ &v~&riWia, at o> 
t& qatk&i\AU2 i/yo kanav at ^vat&QyQyO^ ^kowiao,. 



286 3uwfa&<d tft., 

TVlcyvicLcfru, jvwi& IS. 

2. 

1XMM TfliyQ^ lA^cvutasvicL 6~& kAAAsd esvioiicfk to &?cmv&& 
fi~aAAM fdvouyvi tuyyyu &@Aool at ^teAt-en o'&loeJo tht& 
yftsiyvyvL'ViG, asvicl (ms QsO doOvia c^&attu o6Xta& ki^ 'nvotk&v, 

TyioviclaAf ?V{owuLvig. 

3. 

?Vlv. cwicL TYIvqs. Lun^oln v&aveZ tkal a ^yo&v-tou^ 
a/nsq<AsG& / vvL<& / vit wClt 4yv&u£mt tAeAAs <M&&fiZa/yi&& at Tflvos 
Sv&e/YyLa/nS & fcind twv-ltcitLon lav ^AAiAsOsclaAf 6A>-eM,wia. 

8V- Ta^vu&vqaXaj S > lci&& / 
S^wesOscLaAf, a/tow. 5. 



LETTEK -WHITING. 269 

4. 

Tflv. S^u^wkLuvi fai&QsemZos Aa& &ovnfatLm&wta> to ?71Cq& 
ofh&ltcyyi, ayyid 6*&CfOs k&v to a&&£/jnt Viva, IaXLI& i&Yyve/Wb- 
(yiawi&& ; iamXJv Aa& k&afc wi®A&Qs toy the, cfi&w- lA&cvi>. 

72 1 /- /fixfktcwict c/L, 
fcun. f, !885. 

ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A GOOD LETTER. 

1. Good Taste. — Remember that paper and envel- 
opes may be "in the latest style" and yet in very bad 
taste. Indeed, it may be said that, as a rule, persons of 
refinement pay very little heed to the changing fashions 
in stationery. Never choose writing-paper which is 
highly colored, showily decorated, or in any way con- 
spicuous. If you wish to use stationery which is 
always in good taste, select heavy paper, either plain 
white or of a delicate pearl or cream tint, and without 
ornament of any kind. Use envelopes to match. For 
" polite correspondence," unruled paper is preferable to 
ruled. If you cannot write straight without a guide, 
place under the page a sheet of paper ruled with lines 
heavy enough to show through. Practice will enable 
you to write as well without the lines as with them. 
For business letters, the cheaper grades of ruled white 
paper may be used, with envelopes to fit the paper. 
Avoid the use of bright-colored inks and fancy varie- 

. ties of sealing-wax. 

2. Neatness. — Remember that character is judged 
by little things. Many a position of trust and honor 
has been lost because the applicant's letter was not 



270 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

neatly written. A soiled, blotted, or scribbled letter 
indicates that the writer is careless, slovenly, and sel- 
fish ; since he has not sufficient regard for the feelings 
of his correspondent to take a reasonable amount of 
time and pains in writing the letter. Cultivate a neat 
and clear hand-writing, without flourishes or oddities of 
any kind. If you make mistakes, or if accidents occur, 
copy and re-copy, if necessary, until you have a neat 
letter. In business letters especially, write as plainly 
as you know how to write. A business man cannot be 
expected to spend time in deciphering hieroglyphics. 
Fold your letter neatly, with the first page inside. 

3. Carefulness. — Be thoughtful about the arrange- 
ment, the punctuation, the spelling, and the grammar. 
Some of these are, in themselves, little things, but neg- 
lect of them is usually interpreted as proof of the 
writer's ignorance. Habitual disregard of these " little 
things " will stamp you as an illiterate person. By 
careful attention to these particulars, in every letter 
which you write, you will soon acquire a fixed habit of 

• writing letters in proper form. 

4. Promptness. — Letters in general should be 
answered as soon as possible after they are received. 
Business letters, in particular, demand immediate at- 
tention. If you need to take time for consideration, 
you should at once acknowledge the receipt of the 
letter and explain the cause of your delay. Otherwise, 
your correspondent may assume that you have not 
received the letter, and may be put to the trouble of 
w T riting you another on the same subject. If you have 
ever waited several days for a reply which you expected 



LETTER-WRITING. 271 

by return mail, you will realize how important it is that 
every one should form the habit of prompt attention 
to his correspondence. In these matters, the best direc- 
tion that can be given is to obey the Golden Rule, 

5. Definiteness. — Doubtless you have sometimes 
been disappointed by receiving a letter which was not, 
in any true sense, a reply to the one which you had 
written, it may have been weeks before. Your corre- 
spondent had evidently laid aside or destroyed your 
letter and forgotten everything except its general pur- 
port. As a consequence, he failed to answer important 
questions and to reply to urgent suggestions of yours. 
Such an experience should teach you that if you at- 
tempt to answer a letter, you should have it before you 
and read it carefully, in order to bring yourself into 
sympathy with the writer. Then you should be cer- 
tain that your letter is a clear and definite reply to the 
one received. 

6. Purpose. — In business letters state clearly and 
concisely your purpose in writing. Come to the point 
as soon as possible. A business man has no time to 
waste in reading long preambles and explanations. Be 
sure to state all the particulars which your correspond- 
ent needs to know, and to arrange them in the form 
which will be most convenient for him. In letters of 
friendship, also, let your purpose be apparent. Have 
something to tell, and tell it so that your letter will be 
worth reading and worth keeping. Remember that a 
purpose need not be great in order to be good. A let- 
ter that is written with no purpose would better have 
been left unwritten. One of the silliest things that 



272 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

you can do is to open a correspondence "just for fun." 
It will surely result in waste of time, and perhaps in 
something worse. 

7. Courtesy. — Cultivate, in writing as well as in 
speaking, courteous habits of expression. A letter need 
not be brusque or in any way suggestive of rudeness, 
simply because it is a business letter. In letters of 
friendship, remember not to devote the entire space to 
chat about yourself and your concerns. Remember 
that a friendly correspondence is a conversation on 
paper. You should show a kindly interest in whatever 
concerns your friend's happiness. Never forget to make 
inquiries such as you would expect him or her to make 
concerning your own occupations, your health, your 
plans, your friends. Try to put yourself in the place of 
your friend, and you will be sure to say nothing that 
can offend him. Do not fill your letter with apologies. 
They are dull reading, at the best, and you ought to 
have something better worth writing. Answer letters 
promptly, and you will not need to apologize for delay. 
Write with care, and there will be no occasion to ask 
pardon for bad writing and spelling. 

8. Naturalness. — Avoid anything like affectation. 
The charm of a good letter lies in its naturalness. The 
most delightful letter^ are those which show most 
strongly the personality of the writer — the letters of 
which we say, " Isn't that just like her?" or, "It seems 
as if I could hear him tell it." Try to write as you 
would talk to the person whom you are addressing on 
paper. Write in simple and sincere fashion about mat- 
ters in which you are both interested. Don't try to 



LETTER -WRITING. 273 

write "like a book"; don't be silly; don't be senti- 
mental. Avoid the use of hackneyed phrases. Fresh 
and original expressions, used instead of the stiff, formal 
phrases with which most letters open and close, have a 
pleasing effect. If they are in themselves graceful and 
natural, they brighten what might otherwise be a very 
commonplace letter. Do not fall into the habit of in- 
variably using certain forms. Adapt yourself to the 
varying conditions under which you write, the person 
whom you are addressing, and the nature of the letter. 

9. Caution. — Remember that while the "idle words " 
which you speak may soon be forgotten, those which 
you write may some time appear as evidence against 
you. Letters have frequently proved to be very dan- 
gerous witnesses. The expression of your thought " in 
black and white " may, therefore, be a serious matter. 
For this reason, you should use caution in writing let- 
ters. Never send a letter without first reading it care- 
fully and asking yourself whether you would be willing 
to have the letter preserved and perhaps read by other 
eyes than those for which it was intended. Do not, on 
the ground of caution, ask your correspondent to destroy 
your letter. Such a request is commonly equivalent to 
a confession that you are ashamed of its contents. 
Never write a letter which you would rather not have 
your father and mother read. • 

MISCELLANEOUS HINTS. 

1. In writing from large cities like New York, Boston, 
Chicago, and Philadelphia, it is unnecessary to insert the 
name of the state in the Heading of the letter. Remem- 
ber never to omit the name of the state from the Super- 
scription. 



274 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

2. Avoid the use of the adjective dearest in the Saluta- 
tion. My dearest Friend loses its force when used with- 
out discrimination ; and My dearest Mother is absurd, 
since it seems to imply that you have several mothers. 

3. . Do not call a letter & favor or say that it came to hand. 

4. In letters of friendship, do not use such abbreviations 
as are allowable in business letters ; for example, rec'd. 
y'rs, resp'ly. Aff' yours is not a very complimentary close. 

5. In closing a letter to a stranger, you ma} 7 say i" am, 
but not I remain. The latter form should be used if 
you have had previous correspondence with him, so that 
there is at least a slight acquaintance. 

6. Do not forget to date your notes, as well as your 
letters. The date on what seemed at the time of writing 
a very insignificant note may make the communication 
interesting and valuable at some future time. 

7. In addressing a letter to a married woman, do not 
use her husband's title. Such forms of address as Rev. 
Mrs. Bigelow, Mrs. Dr. Edwards, and Mrs. President 
Cleveland are not in good taste. 

8. Do not use the sign S before the number of the house 
or of the post-office box. It adds nothing to the plain- 
ness of the address. 

9. Do not use the word Addressed in the Superscription 
of a note. 

10. Do not use titles indiscriminately. It is in better taste 
to write Mr. before the name than to use the title Esq. 
at the end. Mr. John Craddock, Esq., is almost as bad 
as Dr. Homer Franklin, M.D. 

11. Do not use postal cards for anything but brief busi- 
ness notifications. They are not intended for friendly 
correspondence. If you ever make use of them in writ- 
ing to friends, omit the usual affectionate forms of 
Salutation and Conclusion. 



LETTER -WHITING. 275 

12. Kemember that it is not regarded as polite to seal a 
note which is delivered for you by a friend. 

13. In a short letter to a friend, you ma} r leave the second 
page blank and finish the letter on the third page. Do 
not, however, in a long letter, fill the third page and 
then come back to the second. 

14. Never write part of your letter in vertical lines. Ec- 
centricities of this kind are always in bad taste. Do 
not write the closing words of your letter across the top 
of the first page or in the margins. 

FIVE-MINUTE EXEEOISES. 

1 . Write a note to a relative or a friend, returning thanks 

for a present which he has just sent to you. 

2. Write a letter, renewing your subscription to " The Youth's 

Companion," "Wide Awake," or "St. Nicholas." 
Tell how much money you inclose and in what form. 

3. Write a formal note in the name of your mother, invit- 

ing your teacher to take tea at your home. Name 
the day and hour. 

4. Write an informal note inviting a friend to take a ride 

with 3'ou. Appoint the time or leave it to your 
friend's convenience. 

5. Write to a school friend who has met with an accident 

or an affliction. Express your sympathy and offer 
your help. 

6. Write an informal note congratulating a friend on his 

having won a prize at school. 

7. Write to Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 

Mass., ordering one of the "Atlantic" Portraits for 
your school-room. 

8. Write a Christmas greeting to an absent friend. 



276 LESSORS IN ENGLISH. 

9. Order from James Vick, Rochester, N. Y., flower seeds, 
bulbs, etc., making a list of the varieties which you 
wish to purchase. 

10. Write to a bookseller, ordering a list of books. 

11. Write a note requesting an interview. State clearly the 

time and place. 

12. Write to the publisher of a daily or weekly newspaper, 

asking him to discontinue sending the paper to you. 

13. Write to a merchant in another city, asking for samples 

and prices of goods. 

14. Write a formal note inviting an acquaintance to a social 

gathering at your home. 

15. Write a formal note accepting an invitation to dinner. 

16. Decline an invitation to accompany a friend to a con- 

cert. 

17. Write an informal note to a friend in a distant town, 

inviting him or her to make you a visit. 

18. Write an informal note announcing some good news. 

19. Write a note to accompany a Christmas gift which you 

send to a friend. 

20. Write a note asking a person to contribute money to 

some good cause. 

21. Write to some noted man, asking for his autograph. 

22. Write a note of congratulation to some American 

author, on his birthday. 

23. Write a note asking a stranger to exchange with you 

stamps, coins, or curiosities. 

24. Write a note commending some book which you have 

recently read. 

25. Apply for a situation as clerk, book-keeper, or teacher. 

State briefly your qualifications. 

26. Write an informal note asking a school friend to join 

you in an excursion of some kind. 



LETTER-WKITING. 277 

27. Write a note of apology to your teacher, for some 

thoughtless act. 

28. Write a note from a father asking the teacher to excuse 

his son's absence from school. 
Note. — Do not write : — 

Please excuse my son's absence yesterday. He had the 
toothache, and oblige Mr. Blank. 

29. Write a note to some person of influence, asking for a 

recommendation with a view to obtaining a situation. 

30. Write a note to a business man, introducing a friend 

who is a stranger in the city. 

SUBJECTS POK LETTEKS. 

1. An answer to an advertisement for a clerk or a teacher. 

State your qualifications and experience, and the sal- 
ary which you expect. Give references. 

2. Write to your father, supposing him to be away from 

home. Tell him all the home news. 

3. A vacation letter, describing the place where you are 

supposed to be visiting and the persons whom you 
meet. Tell what you do and think. 

4. A series of short letters from a boy or girl away at 

boarding school. These may take the form of a 
diary for one week, if you choose. 

5. A letter purporting to be from a grandfather or grand- 

mother to their grandchildren, giving some account of 
"the days when I was young." 

6. Describe a real or an imaginary voyage across the 

Atlantic. 

7. Write letters from various interesting places ; for ex- 

ample, Rome, Venice, Athens, Jerusalem, Alaska, 
Brazil, Nineveh, India, China, Mexico. 

8. Give an account of a visit to the poet Whittier. 

9. Write an account of a visit to u Sunnysicle " and the 

grave of Irving. 



278 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

10. Write about a visit to Cambridge, to the homes of 

Lowell and Longfellow, the site of Holmes's birth- 
place, Harvard College, the Washington Elm, Long- 
fellow's grave, etc. 

11. A visit to Concord, to the haunts of Hawthorne, Emer- 

son, and Thoreau. 

12. A visit to the White Mountains ; the Great Stone Face ; 

the Willey House, etc. 

13. Write a letter to a little child, in such language as a 

child would understand. 

14. A letter purporting to be from a dog or a cat to his 

master or mistress. 

15. A letter purporting to be from an aged doll. 

16. A confidential letter from a child to Santa Claus. 

17. A reply from Santa Claus. 

18. A letter from Ichabod Crane, giving his opinion of 

Katrina's treatment of him, and relating his adven- 
tures after leaving Sleepy Hollow. 

19. A letter sealed in a bottle washed up by the sea. 

20. Write to the School Committee, suggesting improve- 

ments that might be made in the school building. 

21. A letter purporting to come from a person living on 

another planet. 

22. A letter dropped from a balloon. 

23. Letters found in strange hiding-places : a secret drawer ; 

an old trunk ; a ginger jar ; a hollow tree-trunk ; the 
lining of an old coat or dress. 

24. Write to a teacher, explaining the method of studying 

English which is used in your school and telling what 
you think are its advantages. 

25. Write to a friend announcing the death of Longfellow 

and giving an account of the funeral. 



COMPOSITION- WRITING. 279 



CHAPTER X. 



COMPOSITION -WRITING. 



To the Teacher: — 

The author's intention is to furnish in this chapter some practi- 
cal hints concerning such a graded course in Composition-Writing 
as may profitably be pursued in connection with the study of 
American classics. It must be evident that only an outline of the 
plan can be given within the limits of a single chapter. Each 
teacher is expected to adapt the work to the needs of her individual 
pupils, according to her own best judgment. 

It will be noticed that the plan calls for but little original work 
during the first year. The wisdom of this arrangement will doubt- 
less be apparent to all who have had any experience in teaching 
pupils from fourteen to sixteen years of age. The simple announce- 
ment that a composition of so many pages, upon a particular sub- 
ject, must be handed in upon a certain day in the near future is 
enough to cast a gloom over the sunniest school-room. 

If we inquire why this is so, we shall probably find that the 
chief reasons are the following : — 

1. The pupils have few ideas of their own. 

2. They are now old enough to realize the crudeness of their 
own thoughts as compared with the thoughts of their elders. As 
a natural consequence, expression is less spontaneous with them 
than it was when they were younger. The ideas which they have 
seem to them not worth presenting. 

3. They have but little command of words. The narrow limits 
of their vocabularies prevent their making a wise use of the help 
which they might otherwise, and very properly, get from books. 
They know that they should not copy the author's words, yet do 
not understand how to clothe the thought in a new dress. 



280 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

It is, therefore, recommended that throughout the first year 
attention be devoted mainly to the reproduction of thought. By 
constant and varied practice of this kind, the pupils learn how 
beautiful and interesting even common things appear when sketched 
by a skillful word-painter. Their own powers of observation are 
quickened by noticing the results of the careful observation of 
others. Ingenuity, accuracy, and aptness of expression are devel- 
oped. The taste is educated by a critical study of cultured idiom 
and graceful diction. Abundant material is provided, so that the 
pupil is not, at the outset, discouraged by having "nothing to 
write. ,, 

It is safe to say that no one will be successful as a teacher of 
Composition who cannot do easily the work which she exacts from 
the class. She should be able not merely to tell them how to write, 
but to show them how. A little help of this kind over the hard 
places will rob composition-writing of many of its terrors. 

Most of the exercises which are quoted as examples were written 
by pupils, and appear "with all their imperfections thick upon 
them." They are to be regarded, not as models, but as helps to 
the beginner. 

The " Suggestions " throughout the chapter will, it is hoped, be 
serviceable to young teachers. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF 
COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 

1. Writing-Materials. — Use white paper of Com- 
mercial Note size, rather than fancy note-paper. Write 
plainly, with black ink. 

2. The Subject. — Write the subject on the first 
line, which is commonly about an inch and a half from 
the top of the page. Arrange the subject so that the 
spaces at the right and left of it shall be equal. Begin 
with capitals all the important words in the subject, — 
the nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 281 

3. Place of Beginning-. — Leave one blank line 
after the subject. Upon the next line below, one inch 
from the left-hand edge of the paper, begin to write 
the body of the composition. 

4. Margins. — Begin each new paragraph one inch 
from the left-hand edge of the sheet. On all other 
lines leave a uniform margin of half an inch at the 
left-hand side. Leave no margin at the right of the 
page. Beginners, who find it difficult to keep the mar- 
gins uniform, may be allowed to rule lightly two pencil 
lines to serve as guides. Draw the lines parallel to 
the edge and at the distances mentioned. Erase the 
lines carefully before the composition is handed to the 
teacher. 

5. Paragraphs. — Group in one paragraph the sen- 
tences which are most closely related to one another. 
For example, if the subject is " Books," include in one 
paragraph all that you have to write upon the topic 
"Ancient Books " ; in another, your thoughts on "Good 
Books," etc. Do not arrange each sentence as if it 
were a paragraph. Take up a book and notice the 
margins at the beginning of paragraphs and the spaces 
between sentences. Notice, also, what an advantage it 
is to have a page of reading broken into paragraphs. 

6. Pages. — Begin the composition on the first or 
outside page and leave the fourth page blank. If you 
have more than three pages, write the fourth page on a 
new sheet, which should be placed inside the first one. 
Number the pages at the top, if the composition is a 
long one. Write your name at the top of each new 



282 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

sheet after the first. The teacher will find this a con- 
venience if the papers become disarranged while she is 
correcting them. 

7. Closing. — Do not close a composition with an 
apology for haying written so little or so poorly. Try 
to make the last sentence a forcible one, and when it is 
finished, stop. Do not add " Finis" or " The End." 

8. Folding. — Having arranged the sheets carefully, 
according to directions, fold the paper once-iSngthwise. 

9. Superscription. — Taking up the folded exercise 
and opening it as if to read the first page, notice which 
half of the blank outside page is towards your left 
hand. Upon this half, write the superscription, the 
first line about an inch and a half from the top of the 
page. The superscription should be in three hnes, — 
Subject, Name, and Date ; for example : — 

20, 1887. 



Do not write on the outside " Composition." Youi 
teacher will understand that you intend it for one. 

lO. In General. — Write neatly, without flourishes. 
If erasures are necessary, make them with a sharp pen- 
knife. Do not write in above the line words which 
you have carelessly omitted. Copying the exercise 
again may teach you to be more careful. Remember 
that it is disrespectful to hand to your teacher a soiled 
or scribbled exercise. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 283 

COMPOSITION. 

First Year. 

Divisions of the Subject. — In all written composi- 
tion, two things are to be considered. They are : — 

First. The Thought. Second. The Expression. 

The first is, of course, the more important. What 
we say is of more consequence than how we say it. 
Nevertheless, in studying Composition, we shall reverse 
this order and consider first, Expression ; because we 
shall find it easier to put into other words the bright 
and good and beautiful thoughts of other people, than 
to create such thoughts for ourselves. 

REPRODUCTION. 

Any expression of another's thoughts in our own 
words is a Reproduction. It may be only a phrase, a 
clause, or a sentence ; and, on the other hand, it may be 
a long story or essaj^. 

Varieties of Reproduction. — There are three spe- 
cial forms of Reproduction, — Paraphrase, Abstract, and 
Amplification. 

PARAPHRASE. 

A Paraphrase is a reproduction in which the same 
thought is expressed in equivalent words. If the 
original article be written in verse, the thought ex- 
pressed in prose is a paraphrase. Retaining the origi- 
nal thought, we change the style by substituting our 
own expressions for the author's. A paraphrase is, 



284 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

therefore, a sort of translation from another's speech 
into our own. 

Ex. From his half -itinerant life, he was a sort of walk- 
ing gazette. 

Paraphrase. — He spent nearly half his time in going about 
from house to house, and so he became a kind of travelling 
newspaper. 

How to Write a Paraphrase. 

1. Read the selection carefully, looking up the defi- 
nition of any word whose meaning is not clear to you. 
You must understand exactly what the author means 
before you undertake to express his thought. If he 
uses figurative language, study his figures so as to be 
able to give the same idea in plain language. 

2. Taking one sentence, or, if it be a story, one para- 
graph at a time, make a list of the expressions which 
you wish to vary. There will necessarily be some 
words which you cannot change without spoiling the 
sense. A little study will show you which words and 
phrases may safely be " translated." 

3. Select other words and phrases to substitute for 
those on your list. The Dictionary will help you in 
this. Try to select the best word. Take time to think 
whether the word will fit into the place which you in- 
tend it to occupy. 

4. Reproduce the selection. It is proper in translat- 
ing from a foreign language into our own, to make 
what is called "a free translation," changing not merely 
the expression, but also the construction. So, in this 
kind of translation, we should not paraphrase word by 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 285 

word, imitating closely the author's construction. We 
may sometimes secure variety by changing from the 
form of indirect discourse to that of conversation, or 
we may change a declarative sentence to the interrog- 
ative or the exclamatory form. 

Cautions. 

1. Be careful not to keep the words of the author 
except where it is unavoidable. The best paraphrase 
is that which most closely follows the thought of the 
original, while bearing the least resemblance to it in 
form. 

2. Do not assume that you have only to substitute 
the definition of a word for the word itself. Ludicrous 
effects are sometimes produced in this way ; as for 
example, the following : — 

Irving: — "The foxglove hang its blossoms about the 
nameless urn." 

Paraphrase : — " The handsome biennial plant droop its 
flowers around the vessel of various forms without a name." 

3. In changing poetry to prose, carefully avoid any 
suggestion of rhyme. Avoid also the use of such words 
as morn, eve, o'er, ere, methinks, etc., and such inverted 
constructions as are peculiar to poetry. 

The Study of Synonyms. — Exercise in Paraphrase 
necessarily involves some general knowledge of syno- 
nyms. (See "Precision," Chap. VI.) If there are sev- 
eral words which have nearly the same meaning, we 
cannot invariably substitute any one of them for any 
other without spoiling the sense. We need to learn, 
therefore, the exact meaning of each word. 



286 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Advantages of Exercise in Paraphrasing. — This 
kind of Reproduction furnishes excellent practice in 
writing. 

1. It teaches us to notice how words are used by 
careful writers. It often happens that we have to let a 
word or a phrase stand just as it is in the original, be- 
cause the author has chosen the best possible expression 
for his thought. 

2. It increases the number of words at our command. 
If we learn three ways of expressing an idea where we 
knew only one before, we are richer by just so much. 

3. It enables us to make a proper use of another's 
thought in our own writings. 

OKAL EXEKOISE. 

Suggestion. — The teacher may select from the lesson for 
the day certain expressions for the class to paraphrase. This 
should be a feature of every literature lesson. Three or four 
pupils may be called upon to reproduce the same thought, 
the class deciding which is the best form. It is well to begin 
•with short extracts ; as, for example : — 

— " strode with a martial air." 

— "an insuperable aversion to all kinds of profitable 

labor." 

— " the general purport of this legendary superstition." 

— u russet beard flaked with patches of snow." 

WEITTEN EXEKOISES. 
I. Short Paraphrases. 

Suggestion. — At first only a single sentence should be 
assigned for the writing. The paraphrases may then be 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 287 

read and criticised by the class. After a little practice 
of this kind, the teacher may distribute to the class slips of 
paper, on each of which she has written a sentence from the 
lesson. Each pupil then writes his paraphrase of the sen- 
tence given him. If the sentences are chosen with a view to 
variety, the exercise may be made very interesting as well 
as profitable. Insist upon promptness in reproduction. 

The following are examples of sentences which have 
been used in such an exercise : — 

"The cognomen of Crane was not inapplicable to his 
person." 

" The idol of to-day pushes the hero of yesterday out of 
recollection ; and will, in turn, be supplanted by his suc- 
cessor of to-morrow." 

" Like an awakened conscience, the sea was moaning and 
tossing ; 
Beating remorseful and loud the mutable sands of the 

sea-shore." 
" Once more he cudgelled the sides of the inflexible Gun- 
powder, and, shutting his eyes, broke forth with involuntary 
fervor into a psalm- tune." 

" And dread Olympus at his will 
Became a huckleberry hill." 

II. Extended Paraphrase. 

A paragraph of prose or a stanza of poetry may now 
be reproduced. Remember to avoid the original forms 
of expression. 

Appropriate Selections. 

The opening lines of " Rip Yan Winkle," containing Irving's 
description of the Cat skills. 
Ichabod Crane's School-Room. 



288 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The closing paragraph of " Westminster Abbey." 
The opening lines of " The Courtship of Miles Standish." 
An August Noon, from Prelude to " Among the Hills." 
The Morning after the Snow-Storm, from " Snow-Bound." 
The Music of the Organ, from " Westminster Abbey." 

The Miscellaneous Exercises at the close of the 
chapter on Figures of Speech will furnish material 
for exercises of this kind. For example, the follow- 
ing extracts : — 

26, 52, 56, 57, 58, 63, 70, 76, 79, 81, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 
96, 97, 98, 101, 105, 107, 108, 116, 120, 124, 131, 133, 136, 140, 145, 
149. 

A stanza from " The Psalm of Life," or « The Builders." 

III. Paraphrase of Poems. 

The following are some of the poems which may be 
used for this exercise : — 

Longfellow. 

Resignation. 

The Builders. 

The Ladder of St. Augustine. 

The Village Blacksmith. 

The Day is Done. 

Charles Sumner. 

Travels by the Fireside. 

In the Churchyard at Tarrytown. 

Last four stanzas of " The Golden Milestone." 

The Children's Hour. 

Something Left Undone. 

Aftermath. 

Description of " The Wayside Inn." 

Whittier. 
The Frost Spirit. 
A Dream of Summer. 



COMPOSITION-WHITING. 289 

The Angel of Patience. 

The Huskers. 

The Pumpkin. 

Gone. 

Seed- Time and Harvest. 

The Barefoot Boy. 

Parts of the " Last Walk in Autumn." 

Skipper Ireson's Ride. 

The Pipes at Lucknow. 

The Red River Voyageur. 

Lines for the Agricultural Exhibition at Amesbury. 

The Changeling. 

The Robin. 

ABSTRACT. 

An Abstract is a condensed statement of another's 
thought. The most important ideas are presented and 
in the same order as in the original, but the details are 
omitted. A condensed report of a lecture or a sermon 
is an abstract. It differs from Outline in being ex- 
pressed in complete sentences. 

Ex. " In the old days (a custom laid aside 

With breeches and cocked hats) the people sent 

Their wisest men to make the public laws ; 

And so, from a brown homestead, where the Sound 

Drinks the small tribute of the Mianas, 

Waved over by the woods of Rippowams, 

And hallowed by pure lives and tranquil deaths, 

Stamford sent up to the councils of the State 

Wisdom and grace in Abraham Davenport." Wliittier. 

Abstract. — More than a hundred years ago, it was the cus- 
tom to choose the wisest men to make the laws ; so Stamford 
sent Abraham Davenport to the Legislature. 



290 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

This tells who was sent, from where, to where, when, 
and why. If we arrange these points in the proper 
order, we shall have an Outline. 

1. When. 3. From where. 5. To where. 

2. Why. 4. Who. 

Advantages Derived from Practice in Writing 
Abstracts. — The chief benefit of this kind of repro- 
duction is that it teaches us to select the really impor- 
tant ideas from the article which we have to condense. 
It helps us, too, to see clearly the relations between 
different parts of a sketch or story. A third advantage 
is that it helps us to cultivate a clear, concise, and 
forcible style. Young writers are likely to use too 
many words to express an idea. For this reason, prac- 
tice in writing abstracts is of special importance in the 
early part of our work in Composition. 

How to Write an Abstract. 

1. Read carefully the whole of the sketch or story 
or poem which you have to condense. Be sure that 
you understand the relation of parts and the order of 
events, so that you can tell the whole story to a friend 
who asks what you have been reading. 

2. Make an Outline of the story. This should be 
brief, consisting of not more than five or six topics or 
heads, expressed as concisely as possible. Take care 
to select the most important topics and to arrange them 
in the right order. 

3. Consider the relative importance of the topics, 
and decide about how much time and space you can 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 291 

afford to devote to each. A very common mistake, in 
the writing of Abstracts, is that of reproducing too 
many details in the early part of the work and making 
the last part very much more condensed. 

4. Express clearly, definitely, in complete sentences, 
but concisely, what you wish to say upon each of the 
topics. Avoid rhyme, and do not borrow the author's 
language except where it is unavoidable. 

EXEKOISE IN WKITIM ABSTKAOTS. 
I. Condense a long sentence. 

Ex. Thus one object of curiosity succeeded another ; hill, 
valley, stream, and woodland flitted by me like the shifting 
scenes of a magic lantern, and one train of thought gave 
place to another till, at length, in the after part of the day, 
we entered the broad and shady avenue of fine old trees 
which leads to the western gate of Rouen, and a few moments 
afterward were lost in the crowds and confusion of its narrow 
streets. " The Norman Diligence." Longfelloiv. 

Making- the Outline. — We notice that the most 
important topics are the following: — 

1. What we saw. 3. In what place. 

2. When we arrived. 4. How our journey ended. 

If we wish to make the outline still more concise, we 
may write it in this way: — 

1. What. 3. Where. 

2. When. 4. How. 

The Abstract. — The scenery and the thoughts suggested 
by it continually changed. Late in the day, we passed 



292 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

through a shady street leading to the gate of Rouen. We 
were soon bewildered in the cramped and crowded thorough- 
fares of the city. 

II. Write an Abstract from a paragraph or from a 

short anecdote. 

Suggestion. — Pupils may decide what topics to select, the 
teacher guiding the selection, expression, and arrangement. 
Or, each pupil may make his own outline, and the class may 
decide which is the best, all using that one as the basis of 
the abstract. 

Paragraphs for this exercise may be selected from 
the reading books. Short anecdotes from "The Youth's 
Companion " furnish excellent material for the writing 
of Abstracts. 

General directions for Outlines of longer selections. 

1. Select but a few general topics. These may be 
subdivided if necessary. 

2. Express each topic briefly, but definitely. 

3. See that the list of topics includes the whole sub- 
ject, without repetition of the same thought in two or 
more of them. 

4. Arrange the topics carefully. 

5. Whenever possible, select for your first topic what 
will make a suitable Introduction ; and for the last, one 
which will be a good Conclusion. The intervening top- 
ics may be called the Discussion. 

III. Write an Abstract of a story told in either prose 

or poetry. 

Suggestion. — The story should commonly be selected 
from one of the authors whose works are studied in class. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 



293 



The teacher may, however, find it profitable to vary the style 
of selections, choosing occasionally a good story from " St. 
Nicholas" or u Wide Awake," "Harper's Young People," 
or u The Youth's Companion." 

The first exercise of this kind should be written in class. 
Select a story with which all are familiar. Let pupils dictate 
as to choice, form, and arrangement of topics, and the space 
to be devoted to each. Then let each topic in turn be 
developed by the class. 

The following outline for " Rip Van Winkle " was 
prepared in this way : — 

1. Where — village, houses. 

2. Who — ancestors, character. 

3. Family — wife, children. 

4. Farm — former and present condition. 

5. Occupations — amusing children, 
attending to business of 

others, 
gossiping at the inn. 

6. Expedition — why, when, where. 

7. What He Saw — strange acquaintance, 
amphitheatre. 

8. What He Did — the flagon, its effects. 

9. Awakening — dog, gun, feelings. 
10. Return — homeward way, the house, 

the inn, the people, 
his reception, perplexity, re- 
cognition, 
his daughter, his wife. 

( 11. Later Life — where, occupations. 
( 12. Fame — influence of the story. 



I. Introduction. 



II. Discussion. 



III. Conclusion. 



This may be condensed, combining, for example, topics 
6, 7, and 8 ; also 11 and 12 ; 1, 2, 4, and 5. 



294 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

SUBJECTS FOR ABSTRACTS. 
Irving. 

The Adventures of Ichabod Crane. 

The Quilting Bee. 

Rip Van Winkle's Awakening. 

Longfellow. 
Priscilla's Wedding. 
The Lover's Errand. 
The Blind Girl of Castel-Cuille. 
The Wreck of the Hesperus. 
Rain in Summer. 
The Emperor's Bird's-Nest. 
Sandalphon. 
Paul Revere's Ride. 
The Bell of Atri. 
Kambalu. 
Lady Wentworth. 
The Monk of Casal-Maggiore. 
The Leap of Roushan Beg. 

Whittier. 

The Quaker Household. 

Farm-Life in Winter. 

The Garrison of Cape Ann. 

The Prophecy of Samuel Sewall. 

The Swan Song of Parson Avery,, 

Cobbler Keezar's Vision. 

The Wreck of Rivermouth. 

The Brother of Mercy. 

Kallundborg Church. 

King Solomon and the Ants. 

The Legend of St. Mark. 

April. 

Kathleen. 

Mary Garvin. 

The Witch's Daughter. 

The Well of Loch Maree. 



COMPOSITION- WRITING. 295 

Biography. — The writing of Biography may prop- 
erly be included under Abstract, since we must, of 
necessity, condense the story of an author's life, as 
told by others. 

Advantages. — Besides fixing in our minds the main 
incidents in the life of an author, this kind of reproduc- 
tion affords good practice in the making of Outlines. 

The Outline. — If we examine the sketch of Irving's 
life, as given in Chapter XL, we shall notice that it is 
an Abstract, the outline being made up of the topics 
which are given as headings. Having written this in 
the form of an Outline, let us see if we can make any 
changes in the order of topics. We notice at once that 
there is no Introduction or Conclusion; so those may 
be supplied. We may properly make some mention 
of his works before we reach the end of the sketch of 
his life. We may even refer to his death before we say 
anything about his boyhood. Biographical sketches of 
prominent men who have recently passed away often 
open with a reference to the death, since it is that 
event which calls public attention to the life. Notice 
whether it is possible to combine any two topics. Sup- 
ply omitted topics, such as Personal Appearance, Char- 
acter, etc. 

Suggestion. — The teacher may direct pupils in the recon- 
struction of this Outline, so as to make one which shall give 
the events in order of time. This is a valuable exercise, 
since in this way pupils learn to associate the works of an 
author with persons and places and events. 

The Introduction. — Nothing is more monotonous 
than a series of biographies all of which begin with, 



296 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

" Washington Irving was *born in New York, April 3, 
1783. " Study variety of expression, with a view to 
making a pleasing Introduction. We realize how im- 
portant first impressions are. Perhaps you have some- 
times decided not to read what had been recommended 
to you as a good book, simply because you do not like 
the way in which it begins. You cannot " get inter- 
ested " in the story. You will understand, then, why 
we must try to have something fresh and interesting for 
the first topic. Let us notice some of the ways in 
which we may begin a sketch of Irving's life. 

1. Near the banks of the Hudson River, in the pleasant 
village of Irvington, stands a quaint stone cottage built in 
the Dutch style and overgrown with ivy. Many a traveler 
stops to gaze at the house, and many a question is asked of 
the townspeople concerning the former owner of the estate. 
We, too, shall be interested to know more of the place ; for 
this is " Sunnyside," the home of Washington Irving. 

2. Once upon a time, there was a little boy who couldn't 
have as much fun as he wished, simply because all the people 
around him entertained very strict ideas as to how young 
people should behave. This poor lad, for whom I have a 
great deal of sympathy, was the youngest of eleven chil- 
dren. His name was Washington Irving. 

3. An old lady once made the remark, " Yes, George 
Washington was a great man, but I never knew a child 
named after him that amounted to a row of pins." 

" Why, Grandma," said a gentle voice, " }^ou must have 
forgotten Washington Irving. I'm sure he was a worthy 
namesake." 

"Irving?" said the old lady, " the only Irving that I 
know anything about is that play-actor, and his name's 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 297 

Henry. Do tell us who Washington Irving is and what he's 
done ! " 

Conclusion. — Careful attention should be paid to 
the Conclusion. At any entertainment, we expect the 
best things to come at the end of the programme, 
because the mind naturally lingers upon what comes 
last. So in the writing, we should aim to make the last 
paragraph the most effective one. In this, as in the 
Introduction, try to be, to some extent, original. Do not 
write just what everybody else would be likely to write. 

As has been suggested, it is not necessary that the 
concluding topic be " Death and Burial." "Character," 
"Fame," and "Influence of His Writings" are appro- 
priate topics for the Conclusion. 

Suggestion. — In the same way, the biographies of Long- 
fellow and Whittier may be reproduced. 

Autobiography. — Write a sketch of your own life, 
making the Outline first. The following autobiography 
will furnish some hints concerning choice of topics. 

My Biography. 

Fearing that some of the most important events of my 
life will never be presented to the public if I leave the task 
of writing them to other persons, I have decided to write my 
biography myself, in order that none of the incidents of my 
life may escape the public notice. 

As some disputes may arise among future biographers, in 
reference to my birth-place, it may be well to inform any 
who feel interested, that the city of Bridgeport was so 
honored, although the greater portion of my life has been 
passed in our beautiful " City of Elms." 



298 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

I have no remembrance of the first two or three years of 
my life, but I presume that I had my fair proportion of baby 
troubles and pleasures and swallowed the usual quantity of 
catnip-tea and soothing-syrup. 

My mother says that I was good when I was young. I 
hope I was, but am afraid that I have got bravely oyer 
it. ... 

When I was five years old, I commenced to attend school, 
where I learned to read, write, spell, and on Wednesday 
afternoons to make patchwork and pin cushions. There 
were fifteen scholars in the school, but only two besides myself 
in the lowest class. These two were boys, and my highest 
aim was to be a little in advance of them in LovelPs First 
Reader. 

We did not have such recesses as we do here, where we 
tiptoe down stairs, take a sniff of fresh air, and tiptoe back 
again, all in five minutes; but at eleven o'clock, we rushed 
out into the yard and amused ourselves until a quarter of 
twelve. We played " May-pole " and " Miss 'Ginia Jones," 
and the boys played marbles and ball, and sometimes con- 
descended to take the part of " man of the house," and 
assist us in our house-keeping arrangements. Sometimes, 
too, the boys were Indians, who attacked a traveling party 
consisting of six or seven girls, two kittens, a rag doll, and 
whatever else we could find that would answer the purpose ; 
and although there was no loss of life in these skirmishes, 
there was no lack of noise. They imitated the war-whoop 
to perfection, and made a noise resembling the war-drums 
by jumping on the cellar doors ; and we pretended to be 
frightened out of our senses, and begged for mercy for our- 
selves and our children, which favor the Indians consented 
to grant, doubtless remembering that "discretion is the 
better part of valor," and that if they were too savage, they 
would be reported to the teacher. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 299 

It was about this time that I attended my first party. The 
girls were all in a flutter of excitement, and held numerous 
whispered conferences, but succeeded admirably in keeping 
the victim of the surprise in ignorance of their plans. I 
could scarcely wait until the evening came ; but it did come 
at last, and I went, wondering what the party would be like, 
and whether I should enjoy myself or not. 

My father was to come for me at nine, and until that time 
games were played, and then supper was announced. I 
remembered my mother's injunction, and ate just a very little 
of the cakes and candies. I well remember telling my father 
when he came that I " couldn't go home until the party was 
out," which unsophisticated remark greatly amused some 
ladies who overheard it. 

I soon left that part of the city, and parted from my 
friends and schoolmates, to form other acquaintances and 
find other friends in new circles. Some of those little friends 
whom I left then, have now become, in their own eyes, 
young ladies, and have entirely forgotten me ; some have 
left the city, and I have lost sight of them, and a few have 
been taken by death ; but from whatever cause it may be, 
we are separated forever, as a school, and we shall no more 
" keep house " in the woodshed, no more play Indian massa- 
cre on the cellar doors — together. 

But in my new home I found new friends, who gradually 
took the places of my former companions ; and although I 
did not entirely forget my associates, I ceased to miss them. 
I now attended a public school, which I found very pleasant, 
and in which I made great improvement. 

As my illustrious career in this institution will soon close, 
and as some of the particular points of my life's history have 
now been given to the world, I think I may safely leave the 
rest with my biographer, hoping that he will not permit this 
history of my early years to perish. 



300 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

AMPLIFICATION. 

Amplification is the opposite of Abstract. An Am- 
plification is an expanded statement of another's thought. 
Things left unsaid or only hinted at in the original are 
fully and positively expressed in the Amplification. 
The details are carefully given and the imagination is 
allowed free play. 

Ex. A ship was lost at sea. 

Amplification. — Many years ago, on a beautiful Septem- 
ber morning, a ship sailed out of the harbor of New York, 
bound for the East Indies. She was loaded with the prod- 
ucts of American industry and was expected to bring back 
a cargo of coffee and spices. The captain was a young man 
full of energy and ambition. He was the only son of a wid- 
owed mother. On board were two passengers, a boy and a 
girl, the children of a missionary in India. They had been 
at school in America, but had been summoned to their distant 
home by the news that their mother grieved so sorely over 
the separation from her children that her life was in danger. 
The days sped on and lengthened into weeks, but the good 
ship did not reach her port. Months passed, but no tidings 
of the missing vessel came to either shore. On one side, an 
aged woman, watching for a sail that never came, cried to 
the sea, " Bring back my boy." On the other side, a dying- 
mother moaned, "Give back my dear ones." But the sea 
gave no sign. Years have rolled away, and both mothers 
have gone where there is " no more sea " ; but still the waves 
hide their cruel secret. 

Advantages of Amplification. — The chief advan- 
tage of Amplification is that it is a step towards original 
composition. It suggests ideas and leaves us to think 



COMPOSITION- WRITING. 301 

them out more fully — to develop the meaning in our 
own way. It is like taking a pencil sketch which some 
one else has made, and producing from it a finished 
picture, using our own taste as to the colors and tones, 
the lights and shades. 

How to Amplify a Selection. 

1. Read the selection carefully until you are so famil- 
iar with the story that you can tell it in your own 
words. 

2. Write an orderly list of the points or incidents of 
the story as told by the author. 

3. Make a list of the things which are omitted ; as, 
for example, place, time, name of person, occupation, 
history, events leading to the incident, consequences, 
conclusion. Try to supply in this way whatever the 
original story leaves to the imagination of the reader. 

4. From the two lists, make a complete Outline, 
observing the directions previously given. 

5. Study the Outline with reference to relative im- 
portance of the topics, and decide about how much 
space to devote to each. 

6. Expand each topic in the best words at your com- 
mand, carefully avoiding the forms of expression in the 
original. 

7. Be careful to connect the topics in such a manner 
that the story shall not seem disjointed. Read over 
what you have written, noticing whether the transition 
from one topic to another seems abrupt. If it does, 
you must try to connect the parts more smoothly. This 



302 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

may often be done by using such expressions as " never- 
theless," "on the other hand," "meanwhile," "how- 
ever," "in spite of all this," "and so." 

EXERCISE IN AMPLIFICATION. 

I. Amplify a Sentence. 

Suggestion. — The teacher should question pupils regard- 
ing the successive steps in making the Outline. Let the 
class make the selection of topics, the teacher writing them 
upon the blackboard in the order named. The arrangement 
may then be criticised and corrected. Let the whole class 
write from the same outline. The reproductions may be 
read aloud, in order to see how different stories may be pro- 
duced from the same list of topics. 

Examples of Sentences. 

A kitten went to school. 

A man was accidentally killed. 

A little boy saved his father. 

Spring is coming. 

" Make hay while the sun shines." 

The king walked through the city in disguise. 

u A stone that is fit for the wall is never left in the way." 

From Miscellaneous Examples of Figures, the following 
extracts : — 

1, 10, 14, 17, 20, 32, 37, 38, 45, 69, 71, 72, 83, 84, 102, 117, 118, 
129, 139, 142, 147. 

II. Amplify a Paragraph. 

Suggestion. — Select from the lesson a descriptive para- 
graph, and let the pupils write a short story to fit the scene. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 303 

Any of the following extracts from the Examples of Figures 
may be assigned for amplification : — 

13, 43, 62, 79, 81, 96, 100, 105, 110, 119, 127, 132, 133, 136, 148, 
149. 

III. Amplify a Story told in Poetry. 

Specimen of Reproduction of this kind : — 

The Old Knight's Treasure. 

The original poem, by Henry Morford, may be found in Baker's 
Premium Speaker, Part IV. p. 57. 

Amplification, — The wind moaned mournfully through 
the forest trees and round the grim old castle, standing high 
on a hill, from which the Rhine, many miles distant, was 
just visible. At the back of the castle, the forest extended 
almost to the wall ; but in front, there was nothing to ob- 
struct the view down to the beautiful river. It was a grand, 
lonely place ; grand in its site, and lonely, cut off as it was 
from all the world, by the seemingly limitless forest. 

The nature of the place was indicative of the character of 
its owner. He was isolated from all mankind by an impen- 
etrable forest of reserve, and that he was proud and stern 
was the verdict of all who had ever seen him. But there had 
been days when old Sir John was very different. The ser- 
vants could remember the time when he had been a kind and 
jovial master, never passing them without a word of encour- 
agement ; when he had been happy in the love of a gentle 
wife and a bright-eyed little son. 

Those days had long been over. All the light-heartedness 
was changed into gloom, and stern commands came in place 
of kind words. People thought that he had already outlived 
his usefulness ; and his heirs, especially, were longing for 
his death. For did he not own lands enough to make them 



304 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

all rich ? And what good did luxuries do him ? He was a 
soured, discontented old man, they thought, and did not de- 
serve all his good things. But little did poor old Sir John 
care for the silver that shone on his side-board and the ele- 
gant furnishings of his rooms. They could give him little 
comfort, since he had lost all that he loved in the world. 

He sat in his own room brooding over the fire. Who 
could tell what his thoughts might be ? One of the servants 
would have said that he was thinking of his hoarded treas- 
ures ; for ever and anon he would look at a huge chest stand- 
ing by his bed, and every one knew that this chest contained 
the most valuable of all the old knight's possessions. What 
it held was the greatest of the many mysteries of his life ; 
for no one knew more than was whispered by the servants. 
They encouraged the idea that it contained gold and price- 
less stones ; for on its cover were inscribed these words : 
" Remember all, whate'er befall, save this whatever else be 
lost." 

Rising from his chair, Sir John walked to the window ; 
and as he looked up at the stars, " the forget-me-nots of the 
angels," he wished that he might feel as calm and untroubled 
as they looked, and prayed that he might soon be released 
from his loneliness. 

It was not long that he had to wait. A week from that 
night, after a chill and cheerless day, he lay on his stately bed 
for the last time ; and this time he was as calm as the stars. 

Oh, how heartless the heirs seemed, hardly restraining 
themselves till the prayers were over ! All waited with the 
greatest eagerness for the mysterious chest to be opened. 
Hastening into the room where it was kept, they crowded 
around it while nail after nail was loosened. At last the 
cover was lifted off, and each tried to catch the first glimpse 
of the riches within. Suddenly they drew back, staring in 
each other's faces in speechless amazement and anger. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 305 

The chest contained only the toys of a boy ; the top, whip, 
cord, and kite, all placed tenderly side by side, by the father 
who had been called harsh, cold, and heartless. So had the 
lonely man cherished, all these years, the memory of the 
bright little boy who had promised so much and had left him 
so early. 

POEMS FOR AMPLIFICATION. 

Longfellow. 
The Phantom Ship. 
The Skeleton in Armor. 
The Castle by the Sea. 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 
Excelsior. 

The Norman Baron. 
The Old Clock on the Stairs. 
The Arrow and the Song. 
The Statue over the Cathedral Door. 
Selection from the " Building of the Ship." 
Twilight. 
Gaspar Becerra. 

The Warder of the Cinque Ports. 
Killed at the Ford. 

Morituri Salutamus : " In mediaeval Rome," etc. 
Evangeline : " Once in an ancient city," etc. 
The Revenge of Rain-in-the-Face. 
Haroun al Raschid. 
Daybreak. 
The Cumberland. 

Whittier. 
Maud Muller. 
Telling the Bees. 
The Gift of Tritemius. 
Barbara Frietchie. 
Abraham Davenport. 
In School-Days. 
The Sisters. 



306 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

COMPOSITIONS FROM PICTURES. 

As the next step towards original composition, we 
may write stories or descriptions from pictures. The 
topics are now suggested, not by words, but by forms. 

The following story was written from a picture repre- 
senting a boy in a row-boat to which a kite is attached 
by a long string. A ship appears in the distance. 

How Johnny Clark was Cured of Being a Sailor. 

One afternoon, Johnny Clark, a thrifty farmer's son, made 
up his mind to go to sea. He had been reading an exciting 
sea tale, and, inspired with a desire to become a gallant 
sailor lad, he determined to start that evening. Accord- 
ingly, towards evening, he packed up a few clothes in a red 
handkerchief, and after dark, slipped out of the door with- 
out letting his parents know anything about his plan. 

He had pocket-money enough to carry him to the nearest 
sea-port. Here he found a three-masted schooner wanting a 
cabin boy ; and being glad of the opportunity, he shipped. 

Now it was that poor Johnny's troubles began ; for, after 
being a day at sea, he began to be sea sick. He was kicked 
around by the captain and mate, and more than once wished 
that he was at home. 

But to pass on to the main part of the story. Johnny had 
been on the water two months when his ship was wrecked in 
the Pacific Ocean. A great water-spout struck the vessel, 
and everybody but Johnny being on deck, all were washed 
overboard. The ship was going through the water at a ter- 
rific rate of speed at the time she was struck ; and, of course, 
Johnny could do nothing to aid the men. Now he was in a 
pretty fix. He was soon out of sight of the men in the water, 
and seeing a small island almost directly ahead, he put the 
wheel over a few points, and soon the ship struck on the island. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 307 

Johnny's next thought was of getting aid or being taken 
off the island. For four days he watched, and on the fifth 
day he hit upon a means of escape. Taking the long-boat, 
he put some provisions under the seat, and after constructing 
a kite, he obtained a ball of strong twine from the cabin, and 
then put up the kite. Hitching the end of the kite-string to 
the bow of the boat, he shoved off. He had been on the ocean 
but a few hours when he espied a ship coming to his assist- 
ance. The captain said that he had seen the signal and was 
glad to help the boy out. Johnny was very thankful when 
he found himself on his way home, and when he arrived 
there he concluded that he would never again go to sea. 

Suggestion. — For the first exercise the teacher may select 
a picture large enough for all to see. Let the class tell 
what the picture shows and what it suggests to their minds. 
From these hints, a plan for the story may be written and 
afterwards developed by each pupil in his own way. After a 
little practice of this kind, the teacher may distribute to the 
pupils pictures which she has cut from old books and papers. 
Care should be taken to select such as tell a story. Instruct 
pupils to write first the plan and then the * development. 
Later, let them write descriptions from pictures. 

INVENTION. 

We may now attempt to invent thought for ourselves, 
instead of reproducing the thoughts of other persons, 
expressed in various ways. It will be easier at first, to 
write upon subjects which will exercise the imagination. 

Caution. — In this species of composition, be careful not 
to give your imagination too much liberty. The charm of 
this kind of writing consists in making the story seem not 
only probable, but natural. 



308 LESSONS IN ENGLISH.' 

The following composition is founded upon fact, but 
is largely imaginative : — 

The Story of a Lead Pencil. 

I am only a stubby little pencil, but I was once as long as 
the best and newest of you. I was not battered as I am 
now, but fresh and new, with a nice little rubber cap on my 
head. But my owner was often hungry (they had a long 
session at his school) , and so he chewed and chewed upon 
the rubber until it disappeared. I had a name, too, — 
" Dixon. M." — printed in fine gilt letters on my side ; but 
the name can scarcely be deciphered now. 

Perhaps you'd like to hear my story. Well, one morning 
I was having a comfortable though rather dull time on a 
shelf in Atwater's store, when in came a boy. He paid 
seven cents for a pencil, and by good luck (for him, not for 
me !) had me given to him. 

He slipped me under the strap which held his books and 
started off. I looked about me a little, and discovered that 
my companions in bondage were a Caesar, an Algebra, and 
a little green book only part of whose name I could see. It 
looked like " Snow — ." In a few minutes we entered a 
large building, and I presently discovered that I was in a 
school-room. 

Oh, such fun as I have had since then ! My owner and I 
have not learned much, but I tell you we have enjoyed our- 
selves. Twice a day we have climbed up long flights of 
stairs to a little room where we always arrived much pressed 
for breath, owing to the good times we had had on the way. 

The happiest days of my life have been spent in this little 
room. Once or twice the teacher caught us at our tricks, — 
a neighboring pencil and me, — but she always laid the blame 
to the boy, so it didn't worry me much. One morning I 



COMPOSITION- WRITING. 309 

was obliged to scribble on a. bit of paper, " she has got her 
eye on us." It didn't seem to me quite respectful to use 
a small s for that kind of a" she," and I didn't approve of 
using " got " in that way ; but how was I to help myself? 

Ah, well ! those bright days are over. I no longer enjoy 
myself, but am thrust into the bottom of a deep, dark 
pocket, in company with a knife, a few nuts, some pieces of 
crayon to pelt boys with on the way up-stairs, and a sticky 
lump of gum which my owner chews on the rare occasions 
when he is studying. He says he can think better if he 
moves his jaws. Queer ; isn't it? 

My master owns a brand-new pencil now. I heard him 
say, I suppose in excuse for his treatment of me, " We're 
going to have Examinations, and I've got to cram. So I'll 
get a new pencil and turn over a new leaf." 

Subjects for Imaginative Writing. 

Soliloquy of a School Clock. 
Story of a Penny. 
The Adventures of a Pin. 
The Lost Diamond. 
What the Sparrows Told. 
My Experience as an Agent. 
What the Wind Sang. 
Story of an Old Shoe. 
Adventures of an Apple. 
Adrift on the Lake. 

PIVE-MINUTE EXEEOISES. 

Note. — The following exercises are intended to be introduced 
as frequently as possible in connection with daily recitations. 
Some of them may require more than five minutes. The teacher 
will, of course, extend the time if necessary. 

For additional exercises, short Paraphrases. Abstracts, and 
Amplifications may be written. 



310 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

1. Write correctly, as regards capitals, spelling, punc- 
tuation, and arrangement, a selection which the teacher 
has written upon the blackboard or printed by the 
hektograph. 

Suggestion. — Let the selection contain quotations, and 
let it be written without punctuation or proper arrangement. 

Ex. What are you doing here asked my guardian trying 
to learn myself to read and write said krook and how do you 
get on slow bad returned the old man impatiently its hard at 
my time of life it would be easier to be taught by some one 
said my guardian ay but they might teach me wrong said the 
old man with a wonderfully suspicious flash of his eye I dont 
know what I may have lost by not being learned afore I 
wouldnt like to lose anything by being learned wrong now. 

2. Write a paragraph from the teacher's dictation. 
Suggestion. — This may be an extract from the lesson, or 

some anecdote suggested by recent reading. If the former, 
pupils may exchange papers and correct the spelling, punc- 
tuation, arrangement, etc. 

3. Write in good English what you know about some 
allusion in the lesson. 

Suggestion. — This exercise is doubly valuable, since it 
tests the accuracy of the pupil's knowledge, as well as his 
power of expression. For a review lesson, a longer time 
may profitably be devoted to work of this kind. The topics 
may be written upon cards and distributed to the class. 
After allowing a reasonable time for writing, let the pupils 
exchange papers or change places at the blackboard and 
correct one another's work. 

Examples of Topics: " Sword of Damascus," "Rare 
Aladdin's wondrous cave," syllogism, the Mayflowers, " the 
Truce of God," Luther, mausoleum, Mary and Elizabeth, 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 311 

Plymouth Rock, the gardens of the Incas, " Pisa's leaning 
miracle," " Bertha, the beautiful spinner, " u Mouse-Tower 
on the Rhine," " the crazy queen of Lebanon." 

4. Write sentences containing certain specified grammat- 
ical forms, etc. 

Suggestion. — Pupils who have not had the benefit of good 
elementary drill in English construction will find this exer- 
cise somewhat difficult. For such, it will be well to begin 
with one or two required forms and gradually increase the 
number. The expressions should be underlined and num- 
bered, as they need not be introduced in the order specified. 

Ex. Write a sentence containing (1) the name of an 
American author, (2) the title of one of his best-known 
works, (3) a relative pronoun, (4) an interjection, (5) a 
proper adjective, (6) a predicate nominative, (7) a verb in 
the passive voice, (8) that used as an adjective, and again 
(9) as a conjunction. 

Specimen : Ah! I see that you are reading " The Sketch-Book," 

4 9 .2 

which is, I am told, the masterpiece of that pioneer of American 

3 7 6 8 

literature, Washington Irving. 
i 

5. Write a short story which shall include a given list of 
words, not necessarily in the order mentioned. 

Suggestion. — If these words are selected by the teacher 
from a simple story, they will probably be such as the pupil 
can readily combine. The original story may be read to the 
class after they have shown what they can do with the words. 

Ex. boy, dog, drowned, school, saved, afternoon, reward, 
truant, river, well-treated. 

One Result of a January Thaw. 

On a pleasant, mild afternoon in January, a boy took a 
neighbor's big Newfoundland dog that was friendly to him, 



312 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

and went to the river to skate. In order to do this, he played 
truant from scJiool, and by this act nearly lost his life. At 
this time, what is known as "the January thaw" had just 
set in, and the ice, which the day before had been very thick, 
had melted considerably. Not noticing this, the boy, after 
skating for some time along the shore started on a trip across 
the river followed by the dog. When he was about half-way 
across, the ice suddenly broke, and boy and dog fell in. The 
boy, being exhausted from skating, sank immediately and 
would have been drowned, had not the good dog, who had 
always been well-treated by the boy, brought him to the 
surface and saved his life. Carlo, the dog, was looked upon 
as a hero. His master was the forced recipient of a large 
reward for the dog's services. The boy learned two lessons 
that da} r that were of great importance to him through life. 

6. Write an explanation of some quotation, telling where 
it may be found, by whom it was said, in what connec- 
tion, under what circumstances, etc. 

Suggestion. — A single quotation may be given to the 
whole class, or quotations written on cards may be distrib- 
uted. 

Examples of quotations which may be used for this exer- 
cise are the following : " Not Angles, but Angels " ; " Why 
don't you speak for yourself, John? " ; u All the sons were 
brave, and all the daughters virtuous"; " Look, you can 
see from this window my brazen howitzer"; " You too, 
Brutus ! " 

" Do not fear ! Heaven is as near 
... by water as by land." 

" Our fathers find their graves in our short memories." 

" If you wish a thing to be well done, 
You must do it yourself, you must not leave it to others." 



COMPOSITION- WHITING. 313 

7. Write upon some topic of local or current interest. 

Suggestion. — The newspapers will furnish an abundance 
of subjects. Pupils may have an occasional newspaper ex- 
ercise, each expressing in his own words something which he 
has read in the papers. The teacher should direct pupils in 
their choice of topics. 

Examples of Topics : The Graduating Exercises of our 
School ; Last Night's Fire ; The Toboggan Slide ; Do We 
Need a Public Library ? A Distinguished Guest ; Death of a 
Noted Man ; Rumors of War ; The President's Wedding ; 
A Valuable Discovery ; A Cyclone, etc., etc. 

Questions bearing upon school life may be discussed in 
this way. 

Ex. Why do scholars dislike composition-writing? Is it 
wrong to learn my lessons on Sunday ? Prompting ; A plea 
for short lessons ; Feelings of a tardy pupil ; What I think 
about the habit of chewing gum ; The advantages and dis- 
advantages of studying alone. 

8. Write an advertisement, expressed clearly and con- 
cisely. 

Suggestion. — The pupils may find faulty examples and 
bring them to the class, writing upon the blackboard the 
original form and making their own corrections, the teacher 
suggesting further improvements. 

Ex. Wanted, — a rent ; state particulars as to size, loca- 
tion, etc. 

For sale, — a house, a horse and carriage, groceries, dry- 
goods, etc. 

Lost, — a ring, money, pocket-book, cane, keys, dog, etc. 

Wanted, — a situation as clerk, book-keeper, gardener, 
teacher, etc. 



314 LESSONS IN ENGLISEL 

9. Write a telegram, limit ten words. 

Suggestion. — The teacher may write or dictate a long mes- 
sage, and require the class to condense it within the assigned 
limits. 

Ex. We should like to have you come home as soon as 
you possibly can and bring Mary with you, if she can be 
spared. Father is dangerously ill, the doctor says. Do 
come as soon as you receive this. 

Condensed : Come home with Mary at once. Father is 
dangerously ill. 

10. Reproduce some anecdote bearing upon the lesson. 

Suggestion. — This ma}' be written for the class or told to 
them by the teacher or by a pupil. 

Ex. The relations between the Normans and the Saxons. 
See dialogue between Gurth and Wamba, in the first chapter 
of "Ivanhoe." Selections from " Knickerbocker's History 
of New York." Stories from English History, referring to 
characters mentioned in " Westminster Abbey." Anecdotes 
from " Old Colony Days," " The Blue Laws," and Abbott's 
'f Miles Standish." Anecdotes from the biography of an 
author. 

11. Describe in your own language some character about 
whom you have read. 

Ex. Priscilla, John Alden, Katrina, Miles Standish, Herr 
Van Tassel, Brom Bones, Ichabod Crane, Rip Van Winkle's 
Wife, Uncle Moses Whittier, The Quaker Mother, Miss 
Livermore. 

12. Write exercises on Figures of Speech. 
Suggestion. — The reading lesson for the day will com- 
monly furnish abundant material for work of this kind. The 



COMPOSITION -WRITING. 315 

following are some of the exercises which may be made 
interesting and profitable : — 

(a) Write Euphemisms for the following : — 

She is conceited. He is a liar and a thief. The man 
was intoxicated. Your daughter is lazy and stupid. 

Ex. He was turned out of office. Euphemism : He was 
relieved from further attendance upon the arduous duties of 
the position. 

(b) Change sentences from the literal form to the meta- 

phorical. 
Ex. When we are older we shall enjoy the results of the 
time now devoted to study. Metaphorical : In life's mid- 
summer we shall reap the harvest from the seed which we are 
now sowing. 

(c) Change from Metaphorical to Literal. 

Ex. He urged some tardy loiterer along the flowery path 
of knowledge. 

Literal : He whipped some lazy boy in order to make him 
study. 

(d) Write Similes and Metaphors comparing the following 

subjects : — 

Old Age — Sunset ; Life — Ocean ; the Body — Machine ; 
Kindness — Dew ; Clouds — Snowdrifts ; Life — Race ; 
Trouble — Storms ; Happiness — Sunshine. 

Ex. Simile : Old age should be like the sunset hour, a 
beautiful, peaceful season which comes between the cares of 
the day and the sleep of the night. 

Metaphor : He had already reached the sunset of life, and 
was watching its brightness gradually fade . into the shades 
of evening. 



316 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

(e) Write sentences containing Personification. 

Personify by the use of adjectives or pronouns : winter, 
hope, night, ocean, time, earth, snow. 

Ex. Jolly old Winter is on his way and will soon be here. 

Personify by use of verbs : liberty, health, moon, moun- 
tains, sky, nature, grief, sun, beauty, fashion. 

Ex. Liberty veiled her face while the tyrant spoke. 

(/) Write an Apostrophe.* 

A poem containing apostrophe may be read to the class 
and reproduced by them before they attempt to write an 
original address. 

Subjects : To the Moon ; To a Daisy ; To a Brook ; To 
the Ocean ; To a Sleeping Child ; To a Dead Bird ; To the 
Wind ; To a Mosquito ; To Our Dead Heroes. 

(g) Write sentences containing Antithesis. 

The following are subjects which may be contrasted : Day 
and Night ; Summer and Winter ; Riches and Poverty ; Idle- 
ness and Industry ; City and Country ; Cheerfulness and 
Grumbling ; I Can't and I'll Try ; Work and Play ; Now 
and Then 



Second Year. 
To the Teacher : — 

The Composition work of the first year may be reviewed by 
having the pupils write an occasional Paraphrase, Abstract, or 
Amplification, in connection with the second year's work in Litera- 
ture. The biographies of Hawthorne, Holmes, and Lowell should 
be reproduced in the manner suggested for that of Irving. There 
should be occasional practice in Letter-writing. The main object 
of the second year's work in Composition should be to teach pupils 
to think for themselves and to arrange their thoughts in clear and 
logical order. It is, therefore, recommended that throughout the 



COMPOSITION- WHITING. 317 

second year, less time be devoted to Reproduction and more to 
Invention. From the various lists of Composition Subjects, the 
teacher may select such as are suitable for the class, leaving the 
more difficult subjects for the work of the third year. 

I. COMPOSITIONS UPON OBJECTS. 

In most of your practice in Composition, thus far, you 
have used the thoughts of others as the basis of your 
work. Now you must learn how to write without so 
much help of this kind. It is well to begin by writing 
about simple things concerning which you have some 
knowledge. The first thing to be done is to find out 
how much you know about the subject. 

Collection of Material. — As soon as the subject is 
assigned, you should begin to study it, noting down 
your thoughts as they occur to you. One topic will 
naturally suggest another ; and if you keep the subject 
in mind and make a memorandum of each thought, you 
will soon be surprised to find that you have more mate- 
rial than you can conveniently use. If you do not 
make a note of your thought at the time it occurs to 
you, you will be very likely to forget it when you are 
ready to write. As far as possible, depend upon your 
own knowledge. If you need to learn more than you 
already know about the subject, consult authorities con- 
cerning the points on which your knowledge is deficient, 
but never copy the language of those authorities. Make 
the information so thoroughly your own that you can 
easily express it in your own words. Then make brief 
notes which will help you in writing. You should, if 
possible, collect your material several days before writ- 
ing the composition. 



318 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Suggestion, — For the first exercise of this kind, let the 
material be collected by the class and the memoranda written 
upon the blackboard by the teacher, in the order in which 
the thoughts are presented. The teacher may, as she writes, 
offer suggestions as to the best form of topics. She may 
also show how one line of thought leads to another, and how 
a topic may branch into various sub-topics. 

The following is a copy of such an Outline, written by 
the teacher from the dictation of the class. The topics 
are given in the order in which they were presented. 

Subject : Paper. 

I. Manufacture. 

1. Where. 2. How. 3. By whom. 4. When. 5. Ex- 
tent. 6. Description of factory. 7. Improvements. 

II. Composition. 

1. Rags. 2. Straw. 3. Manilla hemp. 4. Wood fibre. 
5. Rice. 6. Bamboo. 7. Old paper. 

III. Invention. 

1. When. 2. By whom. 3. Where. 4. Importance. 

IV. Modern Uses. 

1. Common uses. 2. Car wheels. 3. Bottles. 4. Pails 
and pans. 5. Collars and cuffs. 6. String. 7. Tis- 
sue flowers. 8. Lamp-shades. 9. Uses in China and 
Japan. 10. Boats. 11. Carpets. 12. Napkins. 13. 
Money. 14. Gun-wads. 

V. Appearance. 

1. Sizes. 2. Color. 3. Ruling. 4. Thickness. 5. 
Variety of aspects. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 319 

VI. Kinds. 

1. Fancy note. 2. Writing pads. 3. Wall. 4. Wrap- 
ping. 5. Drawing. 6. Card-board. 7. Blotting. 8. 
Tissue. 9. Foreign varieties. 10. Parchment. 11. 
Rice. 12. Tracing. 13. Filter. 14. Papier mache. 
15. Oiled. 16. Carpet. 17. Printing. 

VII . Advantages . 

1. Variety of uses. 2. Lightness. 3. Strength. 4. 
Cheapness. 5. Use of waste material. 6. Conven- 
ience. 7. Warmth. 

VIII. Earliest Forms. 

1. Papyrus. 2. Chinese. 3. Substitutes for paper — 
wax tablets, clay tablets, leaves, stones, etc. 

IX. Origin of the Word. 

1. Derivative meaning. 2. Present application. 

X. (Suggested by the teacher). Curiosities. 

1. Longest roll of paper ever made. 2. Experiments to 
test the strength of paper. 3. Describe a collection 
of interesting relics made of paper ; for example, a 
papyrus roll taken from the wrappings of a mummy ; 
a Japanese fan with a romantic history ; a leaf from an 
illuminated missal made by Saxon monks ; a wasp's 
nest; a costume worn at a paper carnival, etc. 4. 
Mother's Rag-Bag — what goes into it, and what comes 
out. Perhaps you can make a humorous composition, 
by exercising a little ingenuity in the arrangement of 
your lists of articles, trying to have as great a variety 
as possible. To make it more fanciful, you might have 
for the title of your sketch " The Enchanted Bag," and 
leave the reader to guess what kind of a bag you mean. 



320 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Selection and Arrangement of Material. — When 
you have thought out a subject in this way and made a 
list of the topics which have occurred to you, you will 
realize at once that you have enough material for a 
dozen compositions. You must, therefore, decide which 
of the topics to select and in what order to consider 
them. A single topic with its subdivisions will often 
furnish abundant material; as, for example, in the 
above Outline, any one of the topics except the ninth. 

Writing 1 the Composition. — Never attempt to write 
a composition of this kind without first making a com- 
plete Outline. When your material is carefully selected 
and arranged, the writing of a composition will be com- 
paratively easy. Take one topic at a time and develop 
it in the best words at your command. If necessary, 
write and re-write that one topic until you are sure that 
you cannot improve upon the expression. In this man- 
ner, develop the entire outline and neatly copy the 
exercise. 

The following subjects may be outlined and developed 
in the manner suggested for the subject " Paper " : — 



Almanacs. 


Grass. 


Slang. 


Pencils. 


Umbrellas. 


Flowers. 


Homes. 


Tongues. 


Time-pieces. 


Cats. 


Agents. 


Eyes. 


Words. 


Dogs. 


Fashions. 


Ears. 


Books. 


Windows. 


Glass. 


Writing Machines. 


Ornaments. 


Hands. 


Candy. 


Mantel-pieces. 


Calendars. 


Doors. 


Names. 


Birds' Nests. 


Shells. 


Trees. 


Letters. 


Advertisements. 


Neckties. 


Hats. 


Signs. 


Handkerchiefs. 


Inventions. 


Heroes. 


Houses. 


Fireplaces. 


Games. 


Bells. 


Lamps. 


The Indians. 


Gigglers. 


Grumblers. 


Iron. 


Pictures. 



COMPOSITION- WHITING. 321 

II. NARRATIVE OR STORY. 

In this kind of composition, the writer relates some 
incident or series of incidents. We shall consider three 
special forms of Narratives : — 

1. Personal Narratives, founded upon incidents in 
the writer's own experience. 

2. Historical Narratives, founded upon events in 
history. 

3. Fiction or Romance, founded upon imaginary 
incidents. 

Personal Narratives. — As the easiest form of the 
Personal Narrative, you may now write some true story 
about yourself: something which you have seen or 
done. Remember that the interest of such a story de- 
pends almost as much upon the way in which it is told 
as upon the incident itself. Try to make it fresh and 
interesting instead of trite and commonplace. Remem- 
ber that, in order to do this, you need not use "big 
words " or adorn your style with elaborate figures. In 
language, as in dress, a simple style is often the most 
elegant. The stories which make the strongest impres- 
sion upon us — whose humor awakens our mirth and 
whose pathos brings the tears to our eyes — are com- 
monly those which are told in simple, unaffected style. 
Be clear, exact, and truthful in all your statements. 
Aim to tell the story in such a way that the incident 
shall be vividly presented to the reader. The frequent 
use of "I" in a personal narrative makes the writer 
appear egotistical. This effect may often be avoided by 
introducing a part of the story in conversational form. 



322 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Subjects for Personal Narratives. 

How I Ran Away. Sitting for a Picture. 

An Eventful Day. Our Family Picnic. 

A Journey. My First Gunning Expedition. 

Making Believe. Learning to Swim. 

A Visit to the Country. My First and Last Cigar. 

Keeping a Diary. Our Family Cat. 

Some of My Treasures. My First Day at School. 

Afraid of the Dark. My First Impressions of Death 

Having a Tooth Pulled. One Saturday Afternoon. 

A True Story of a Dog. My Bicycle and I. 

What I Used to Think. My First Pair of Skates. 

My Experience in Housekeeping. My First Disobedience. 

Recollections of School Days. The Story of Our Hired Man. 

A Ride in the Street Car. My Best Day Last Vacation. 

Some of My Early Amusements. A Fishing Excursion. 

What Happened on My Way to School. 

My First Experience with the Telephone. 

My Earliest Recollections of Sunday School. 

My First Attack of Homesickness. 

Story of a Winter Evening. 

Historical Narratives. — The Historical Narrative is, 
of necessity, a reproduction. It is commonly either an 
Abstract or an Amplification of what has been told by 
others. Imaginary incidents are often combined with 
historical events, making what is called an Historical 
Romance. Many of Sir Walter Scott's "Waverley 
Novels " are of this character. So, too, are James Fen- 
imore Cooper's stories of Indian life. In writing an 
abstract of a story taken from history, be careful to 
select the most important incidents and to make a clear 
and connected outline. In amplifying, be sure that the 
details which your imagination supplies are in keeping 
with the scene, the time, the characters, and the spirit 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 323 

of the story which you are relating. If you invent 
conversations, let the language be such as would be 
natural and appropriate for the persons whom you 
imagine to be talking. 

Suggestion. — The teacher may relate the bare facts of 
some historical incident and then read to the class an Ampli- 
fication of the same story. For example, one of the stories 
from Hawthorne's " Grandfather's Chair " or a good histor- 
ical sketch from the " St. Nicholas." Point out the merits 
of the Reproduction and call attention to any incongruities 
or anachronisms that may appear. Require pupils to make 
first an Outline of the narrative, in order to preserve the 
proper relations of parts. 

Subjects for Historical Narratives. 

The Landing of the Pilgrims. The Story of the Charter Oak. 

The Boston Tea-Party. Story of One of the Salem Witches. 

The Capture of Andre. The Fountain of Perpetual Youth. 

The Battle of Lexington. The Discovery of the Mississippi. 

The Regicides. King Alfred and the Cakes. 

The Flight of Mahomet. Pocahontas. 

A Story of Venice. The Crusade of the Children. 

Execution of Joan of Arc. Cceur-de-Lion and the Minstrel. 

The Princes in the Tower. The Taking of Babylon by Cyrus. 

A Gladiatorial Combat. Story of a Child Queen. 

The Battle of Waterloo. Death of Julius Caesar. 

The Battle of Hastings. The Battle of Gettysburg. 

The Destruction of Pompeii. Cornelia and Her Jewels. 

A Boy Hero. The Story of Paul Revere. 

Incidents from the lives of Washington, Lincoln, Grant, and 
Garfield; of Nero, Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, Charlemagne, Queen 
Elizabeth, Mary Queen of Scots, Napoleon, and other characters. 

Fiction. — You are now required to exercise your 
imagination, depending entirely upon your own taste 



324 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

and ingenuity in making up the story. Before attempt- 
ing to write, you should make a "plot" or plan of the 
story. Do not allow your imagination to take too wild 
flights. Except in a fairy story, confine the incidents 
within the realm of probability. 

Suggestion. — Select some story with which all are familiar ; 
as, for example, " Cinderella," " Blue Beard," " Little Red- 
Riding-Hood," or " Robinson Crusoe," and let the pupils 
analyze it, so as to understand what is meant b}^ a " plot." 
Require them to prepare a plot of each story which they write. 

Exercise in Fiction. — As the first exercise of this 
kind, you may take one of the nursery rhymes and 
invent a story which shall have the same general plot, 
but be in detail as different as possible from the orig- 
inal. Some of the rhymes which may be used in this 
way are the following : — 

Old Mother Hubbard. Little Jack Horner. 

Little Tommy Tucker. The Queen of Hearts. 

Jack and Jill. The Man in the Moon. 

•The Old Woman in the Shoe. Mistress Mary, Quite Contrary. 
The Old Woman Who Lived under the Hill. 
The Bachelor Who Went to London to Get Himself a Wife. 

Subjects for Fictitious Narratives. 

Story of a Fan. Nan's Crazy Quilt. 

The Wishing Stone. Lost at Sea. 

The Land of Nod. The Enchanted Garden. 

A Remarkable Dreair Adventures of an Umbrella. 

The Magic Ring. The Mirror's Reflections. 

The Brook's Story. Story of a Cedar Chest. 

The Lost Letter. The Blackboard's Complaint. 

Story of a String of Beads. How Johnny Went to See Jumbo. 



COMPOSITION- WRITIKGc 325 

The Sad Fate of a Wayward Chicken. 

Legend of a Boy Who Was Never in Mischief. 

What Came of Borrowing a Hammer. 

A Hero Unknown to Fame. 

A Letter from a High School Mouse. 

Old Father Time's Treasure House. 

What Came of Robbing a Bird's Nest. 

The Man Who Never Smiled. 

Soliloquy of a School Desk. 

Why Toads Have No Tails. 

The Girl Who Had "No Time." 

The Little Girl Who Wouldn't Say " Please." 

Recipe for Composition Cake. 

What the Wind Sang. 

The Land Where the Lost Things Go. 

How Jack Learned the Multiplication Table. 

A Visit to the King's Palace. 

How I Caught a Burglar. 

A Day with Hawthorne at the Old Manse. 

How Samuel Alexander Persimmon Was Cured of a Bad Habit. 

III. DESCRIPTION. 

Description is a more difficult kind of composition 
than any which you have yet attempted. It aims to 
portray objects in such a manner that they shall appear 
to the reader exactly as they do to the observer. A 
good description is a clear, vivid, and accurate word- 
picture. If you notice how much your enjoyment of a 
book depends upon the author's power to make things 
seem real, you will understand how important it is to 
practise this species of composition. In our study of 
Description, we shall consider the following varieties : — 

1. Description of Objects. 

2. Description of Scenery. 

3. Description of Persons. 



326 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Description of Objects. — In writing Descriptions of 
Objects, observe the following directions : — 

1. Select a subject which is attractive and about 
which you are well informed or which your imagination 
can easily develop. 

2. Study the subject carefully, noting all the impor- 
tant points. You cannot expect to give others a clear 
and correct idea of the object which you are describing, 
unless you see it clearly for yourself. It is well to 
make a list of the elements which you wish to combine 
in your Description. 

3. Having chosen the most important elements, 
arrange them in such an order as to make the descrip- 
tion most effective. 

4. Combine the elements, aiming to make a clear, 
vivid, truthful, and complete picture. 

Caution. — Remember that the vividness of your Descrip- 
tion depends largely upon the language which you use. Let 
your adjectives be carefully chosen and not too numerous. 
Remember that particular terms are far more graphic than 
general ones. For example, if you write " A tree stood by 
the house, " your word-picture is indistinct ; because you 
have not told what species of tree it is and what sort of a 
house you have in mind. Notice how the picture changes if 
we substitute particular terms : — 

(a) A great elm spread its protecting arms over the cottage. 

(b) Against the background of the weather-beaten roof 

gleamed the scarlet berries of a mountain ash that 
stood beside the parsonage. 

(c) Near the south window of the farm house grew an old 

apple-tree, which was now pink with blossoms and 
in which a robin was building her nest. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 327 

(d) In front of the ruined house a single tall poplar stood 
like a sentinel. 

Suggestion. — The teacher may read to the class specimens 
of fine description, pointing out the merits of each. Then 
the pupils may read or recite in class bits of description 
which they have selected from the work in Literature or from 
other sources. Do not discourage them by requiring them 
to write long descriptions at first. 

EXEEOISE. 

Write descriptions from the following sentences, substi- 
tuting particular terms for the general ones. Make several 
pictures from each sentence, having as great variety as pos- 
sible. 

1. At the foot of the rock was a spring. 

2. Flowers bloomed beside the brook. 

3. A storm came on at nightfall. 

4. The cave was on the mountain. 

5. The box contained many interesting relics. 

Subjects for Descriptions of Objects. 

A Country Store; A School-room. 

A Ruined Mill. The Old Garret. 

A Deserted House. A Prison. 

An Old-fashioned Kitchen. A Factory. 

My Grandma's Garden. Aunt Maria's " Best Room. 5 ' 

An Old Graveyard. A Blacksmith Shop. 

An Art Gallery. Grandfather's Barn. 

A Museum. A Beautiful Home. 

A Country Church. A Lawyer's Office. 

The Abode of Poverty. A Library. 

The State House. My Ideal House. 

An Ocean Steamer. A Printing Office. 

My Pet Bird. A Post Office. 

A Castle. A Cathedral. 



328 LESSONS IK ENGLISH. 

Description of Scenery. — In writing descriptions of 
natural scenery, you should aim to make the picture 
appear to the reader as beautiful and interesting as it 
does to you. For this reason, it is best to begin by 
describing some scene with which you are very familiar 
or which has made a strong impression upon you. You 
must first be able to tell what are the most important 
features of the scene and to give a clear idea of their 
arrangement and their relations to one another. To 
this end, you must cultivate the habit of careful obser- 
vation. It is an excellent practice to keep a note-book 
in which to record such facts and impressions as you 
would be likely to forget when the scene is no longer 
before your eyes. Hawthorne's Note-Books show how 
good an observer he was, and what use he made of his 
observations. 

Importance of Little Things. — The charm of a 
description consists largely in the author's attention 
to little things, such as would escape the notice of the 
careless observer. Sir Walter Scott, wishing to write a 
graphic description of a ruined abbey, thought it worth 
while to take a long journey on horseback, on purpose 
to see for himself what species of flowers and weeds 
were growing about the ruin. 

Suggestion. — Let the pupils read or recite in class choice 
bits of description, pointing out any special features of 
excellence. Subjects for description will be furnished by 
this exercise. If the quotation describes a valley, it may 
suggest to the pupils how to describe one which they have 
seen, etc. 



COMPOSITION- WRITING. 329 

EXEEOISE. 

Describe a view from your window, giving a clear and 
truthful representation of what you see. In addition to the 
features which are visible, you may properly mention the 
sounds which you hear and the thoughts which are awakened 
by the scene. You may mention also the circumstances 
under which you make your observations. You should first 
make a plan, showing what features you intend to embody 
in your description ; as, for example : — 

Time. — Early evening in August. 

Circumstances. — Twilight of a hot day, the full moon 
just rising. 

Features of Scenery. — Hills in the distance, sky, trees, 
shrubbery. 

Artificial Features. — Buildings, etc. 

Living Beings. — Birds, bats, insects, etc. (Avoid use 
of general terms.) 

Sounds. — Children at play, barking of a dog, crying 
infant, etc. 

Persons. — Tell what people you see and what they are 
doing. 

Reflections. — (These may be interwoven with the several 
parts of the description, in the order in which they are sug- 
gested to the mind.) 

Describe any beautiful place which you have visited. — 
During your vacation journeys, you should take notes con- 
cerning what interests you. These notes will help you to 
write clear, vivid, and accurate descriptions. 

Subjects for Descriptions of Scenery. 

A Sunset Scene. Description of a Waterfall. 

A Winter Night. The Loveliest Spot I Know. 

View From a Hill-top. Grandpa's Ten- Acre Lot. 



330 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

A Rainy Day in the Country. Moonlight on the Lake. 

" When the Woods Turn Brown." Description of a Cave. 

A Snow Scene. Sunrise among the Mountains. 

Ocean Pictures. A Woodland Scene 

A Country Road. A Thunder Storm. 

A Rainbow. The Morning after an Ice Storm 

A Beautiful Landscape. Description of a Valley. 

A Mountain Stream. A Strange Freak of Nature. 

A Storm at Sea. A Tropical Forest. 

A Volcano. Twilight. 

Pictures of a Place at Different Seasons. 

What I Would Paint if I Were an Artist. 

Description of Persons. — You are now to have 
some practice in the most difficult kind of Description. 
In this, as in the varieties which you have already- 
studied, attention must be paid to the little things. 
The best way of learning how to describe persons is to 
notice how others do it and then to study the personal 
descriptions which seem to you most graphic. 

Suggestion. — Read to the class some of Dickens's personal 
descriptions, selecting a variety of characters. Call atten- 
tion to the little touches by which he brings out the person- 
ality of each. Let the pupils select good personal descrip- 
tions and tell why they are good, showing which of the 
details furnish the most effective touches in the painting of 
the portrait. 

Writing a Personal Description. — Make a study 
of the peculiarities and characteristics of the person 
whom you wish to describe. Notice what are the 
strongest points of individuality, and reproduce those 
in your sketch. Do not be disagreeably personal, if you 
choose your subject from your own list of acquaint- 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 331 

ances. Remember that a portrait-painter should al- 
ways place his subject in the best possible light. Some 
of the points which you may have in your outline are 
the following : — 

Form, features, manners, attitudes, dress, habits ; pecu- 
liarities of gait, speech, and expression ; habits of thought ; 
disposition ; traits of character ; intellectual and moral capac- 
ities ; influence ; usefulness. 

Subjects for Personal Descriptions. 

My First Teacher. An Old Sea-Captain. 

Our Johnny. My Most Intimate Friend. 

Some of Our Neighbors. Baby Ruth. 

" That Mr. Jones." The Boy of the Period. 

The Queen of Our Kitchen. The Girl of the Period. 

A Miser. Our Doctor. 

The Meanest Man in Town. Our Minister. 

A Homely, Good Woman. The Children in Our Block. 

A Beautiful Old Lady. A Family of Gypsies. 

Peculiar People. A Tramp. 

The Wise Professor. John Chinaman. 



IV. DESCRIPTION AND NARRATIVE COMBINED. 

You have doubtless noticed in your reading that 
Description and Narrative seldom occur alone. In the 
treatment of many of the subjects included in the pre- 
ceding lists, Description and the various forms of Nar- 
rative may be combined with good effect. No special 
rules can be given for this kind of writing. In general, 
aim to have a pleasing variety in composition and a 
natural and interesting style. 



332 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Additional Subjects. 

Experiences in a Street-Car. An Editor's Trials. 

Story of Three Old Maids. Blunders. 

A Fishing Excursion. Story of a Beggar. 

Faces. Calling a Boy in the Morning. 

My First Experience in Teaching. Story of a Soldier. 

A Japanese Girl. Decoration Day. 

A Visit to a Battle-Field. Christmas. 

Auctions. Thanksgiving. 

Scene at a Railway Station. My Walk to School. 

What Happened This Morning. A Ride across the Prairie. 

Rambles by the Roadside. Street Scenes. 

My Favorite Picture. Trials of a Deaf Person. 

My Little Brother. An Hour on the Toboggan Slide. 

A City Boy's Visit to the Country. 

Revelations of an Autograph Album. 

Adventures of Diogenes the Second. 

How to Choose Composition Sitbjects. — Teachers 
sometimes find it difficult to select interesting subjects 
for compositions. One of the advantages of combining 
Composition work with the study of Literature is that 
many lines of thought and investigation are thus 
opened, affording fresh and varied topics for writing. 
Some of the most successful teachers of Composition 
are in the habit of assigning subjects which are sug- 
gested to them by books and by newspaper and maga- 
zine articles. It is strongly recommended that the 
studies in Literature be made the basis of the practice 
in Composition. 

The following subjects, suggested by the reading of 
"Snow-Bound" and the Prelude to "Among the Hills," 
will give an idea of the way in which teachers may 
make the Literature lessons doubly valuable. 



COMPOSITION-WRITING. 



333 



Subjects Suggested by "Snow-Bound. 



An Old-Fashioned Winter. 

Farm-Life in Winter. 

A New England Barn. 

A Snow Storm. 

The Masquerade. (Snow.) 

Snow Flakes. 

New England Character. 

Winter Sports. 

Aladdin's Cave. 

Woods in Winter. 

The Brook. 

A Wood Fire. 

Description of a New England 

Kitchen. 
An Old-Fashioned Fireplace. 
Moonlight on the Snow. 
Silhouettes. 
Pictures in the Fire. 
" No Place like Home." 
" The Days that are No More." 
Mercy Warren. 
The Salt Marshes, 
The Isles of Shoals. 
Witchcraft. 
Making Hay on the Salt 

Meadows. 
A Day on the Beach. 
The Quaker Mother. 
The Indians at Haverhill. 
Stories of the Quakers. 
Studies of Nature. 
Different Ways of Looking at 

Common Things. 
An Old Man's Memories. 
Looking Back. 
The Truce of God. 



What I Know about Birds. 

Telling Stories by the Fire. 

Uncle Moses. 

A Charming Old Maid. 

Mercy Hussey's Romance. 

A Husking Bee. 

An Apple Bee. 

Influence of Woman. 

The Elder Sister. 

Different Views of Death. 

Story of a Braided Mat. 

The Harebell. 

Elizabeth Whittier. 

The Schools of Long Ago. 

Boarding Around. 

The Schoolmaster. 

The Guest. 

Animal Types of Human Beings. 

" The Crazy Queen of Lebanon." 

Charity for the Faults of Others. 

A Bull's-Eye Watch. 

Sounds of a Winter Night. 

Winter Sleep and Summer Dreams . 

Breaking the Roads. 

A Country Doctor. 

A Kind Neighbor. 

Almanacs. 

The Village Newspaper. 

The Pleasure of Receiving 

Letters. 
A Vendue. 
Influence of Newspapers upon 

People in the Country. 
The Angel of Memory. 
The Century Plant. 



334 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



Suggested by the Prelude to " Among the Hills." 



The Gardens of the Incas. 
The Cardinal Flower. 
A Harvest Scene. 
Heliotrope and Mignonette. 
The Nobility of Labor. 
Two Old Homesteads. (Con- 
trast.) 
Grandma's Sampler. 
Blind in the Midst of Beauty. 



Golden Bod. 

An August Noon. 

Riding on the Load. 

What is Chivalry? 

The Hard Side of a Farmer's 

Life. 
" The Best Boom." 
Parlor Ornaments. 
The Mystery of the Woods. 



Pictures from Memory's Sketch Book. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 335 



CHAPTER XI. 

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 
WASHINGTON IRVING. 

Born at New York, April 3, 1783. 

Died at " Sunnyside," Irvington, N.Y., Nov. 28, 1859. 

Home Circle. — William Irving, the father of Wash- 
ington Irving, was a native of one of the Orkney Islands. 
His early life was spent upon the sea, but soon after 
his marriage he gave up his sea-faring life and came to 
America. He became a prosperous merchant in New 
York City. Three children died in infancy, but five 
sons and three daughters grew up to manhood and 
womanhood. Washington Irving was the youngest of 
the eleven children. 

Boyhood. — Irving was born just at the close of the 
Revolutionary War. When the parents came to decide 
upon a name for their son, the mother remarked, 
" Washington's work is ended, and the child shall be 
named after him." When Washington became Presi- 
dent, he was one day entering a shop in New York, 
when he was accosted by the Scotch nurse employed by 
the Irvings. " Please, your honor," said the excited 
woman, " here's a bairn was named after you." The 
great man laid his hand upon the child's head and gave 
him his blessing. 

Irving was a mischievous boy, but he was so strictly 



336 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

brought up that he used to say, " I was led to believe 
that everything that was pleasant was wicked." When- 
ever he could spare the money, he enjoyed the forbidden 
pleasures of the theatre, returning home just in time 
for family prayers. When these were over, he would 
go to his room, creep out of the window and down the 
roof to a back alley and hurry to the theatre in time 
for the after-piece. 

School Life. — Until he was sixteen years old, Irving 
attended various private schools, but he was not a prom- 
ising pupil. He liked to wander about the wharves 
and watch the ships going out to sea much better than 
he liked to learn his lessons. Though not fond of study, 
Irving early showed a remarkable taste for reading. At 
the age of eleven, books of travel were his chief delight. 
His talent for scribbling was so well recognized that 
the other boys used to hire him to write compositions 
for them, paying him by doing his examples in arith- 
metic. It had been the intention of his parents to send 
him to Columbia College, where his brothers Peter and 
John were students. The idea was abandoned, owing 
partly to the lad's delicate health, but more to his indif- 
ference to education. In after years, Irving deeply re- 
gretted that he did not improve his early opportunities. 

Law Studies. — At the age of sixteen, he entered a 
law office, where his brother John was studying. Here 
he spent two years, but made little advance in his 
studies. A third year was passed in the same way in 
another office. In 1802, he became a clerk in the law 
office of Josiah Ogden Hoffman, who used to speak of 
him as a heedless student. Having been interrupted 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 337 

in his law studies by ill health and by a journey abroad, 
he was not admitted to the bar until 1806, when he 
entered the office of his brother Jolm in New York, but 
did not really engage in practice. 

Travels. — While Irving was studying law, he spent 
his vacations in explorations of the Sleepy Hollow 
region and in excursions up the Hudson and the 
Mohawk valleys, to visit his two married sisters. He 
was the first writer to describe the beauties of the 
Hudson River. In 1803, he accompanied Judge Hoff- 
man and a party of friends on a journey to Ogdensburg, 
Montreal, and Quebec. In 1804, his brothers sent him 
to Europe, hoping to benefit his health, which was then 
so feeble that the captain of the ship said, " There's a 
chap who will go overboard before w r e get across.'' 
Nevertheless, Irving landed in Bordeaux greatly im- 
proved in health. He was a social young man, and 
easily made friends. During his stay abroad, which 
continued for nearly two years, he visited France, Italy, 
Sicily, the Netherlands, and England, being received 
into the best society in all the chief cities. Early in 
1806, he returned to New York. 

In 1815, Irving again went to Europe. During this 
second residence abroad, which lasted seventeen years, 
he made the acquaintance of Thomas Campbell, Thomas 
Moore, and Sir Walter Scott, and met Mr. Longfellow, 
who was then in Spain, preparing for his duties as pro- 
fessor at Bowdoin. 

Upon Irving's return in 1832, he was welcomed to 
America by a public banquet. In 1834, he traveled in 
the West, in company with commissioners appointed to 
treat with the Indians. 



838 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Partnership in Business. — In 1810, a partnership 
was formed by the three brothers, Peter, Ebenezer, and 
Washington Irving. Peter made the purchases and 
shipments at Liverpool, and Ebenezer conducted the 
sales in the New York store. By the terms of the con- 
tract, Washington was not to pay any attention to the 
business, but was to receive one-fifth of the profits, in 
order to provide for his support and leave him at leisure 
to devote his time to literature. When Irving went 
abroad, in 1815, his brother Peter was so ill that 
Washington took his place for a time in the Liverpool 
establishment. Various causes combined to cripple the 
business, and in 1818, after a long period of anxiety, 
the firm went into bankruptcy. 

Public Offices. — Irving declined several public offi- 
ces, among which was that of Secretary of the Navy, 
under President Van Buren. In 1829, while living in 
Spain, he was appointed Secretary of Legation to the 
Court of St. James, and returned to London to enter 
upon his duties. He retired from this office in 1831. 
'During President Tyler's administration, Irving was 
minister to Spain (1842-46). He had previously spent 
three years in that country (1826-29). 

Home. — In 1835, Irving purchased an estate at 
Tarrytown, on the Hudson, where he made a home for 
some of his relatives who were dependent upon him for 
support. Here his brother Peter spent his last days, 
after having lived abroad for nearly thirty years. Eben- 
ezer Irving with his five daughters, and Irving's sister, 
Mrs. Paris, with one daughter, also shared his home. 
The house was originally a small Dutch cottage, built 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 339 

by one of the Van Tassel family, about a hundred years 
before. It is described in " The Legend of Sleepy 
Hollow." Irving remodeled and greatly enlarged the 
house, which was of stone, and planted slips of ivy 
brought from Melrose Abbey. In after years, the vines 
completely covered the walls. Irving named his home 
" The Roost," but it was rechristened " Sunnyside." 
Washington Irving was never married. In early 
manhood, he was engaged to Miss Matilda Hoffman, 
daughter of Judge Hoffman. She died in 1809, in her 
eighteenth year. 

Literary Career. — Irving's first literary work was 
a play, written for an entertainment at the house of a 
friend. He was then but thirteen years old. In 1802, 
he contributed humorous articles to " The Morning 
Chronicle," a daily newspaper edited and published by 
his brother Peter. These articles were signed " Jona- 
than Oldstyle." In 1807, Irving, in partnership with 
his brother William and James K. Paulding, whose sis- 
ter William had married, wrote and published " Salma- 
gundi," a humorous magazine. In 1813, he edited for 
a year " The Analectic Magazine," published in Phila- 
delphia. It was not until 1818, after the business fail- 
ure of the Irving brothers, that Irving's literary career 
began in earnest. The first work published afterwards 
was "The Sketch-Book," written under the assumed 
name of " Geoffrey Crayon." It became popular in 
England, owing, in part, to the commendation of Sir 
Walter Scott. In 1830, the Royal Society of Literature 
bestowed upon Irving one of the two fifty-guinea gold 
medals awarded annually. 



340 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Death. — During the last years of living's life he 
suffered much from asthma, and spent most of the time 
quietly at "Sunnyside." He died suddenly, the imme- 
diate cause being heart disease. The funeral services 
were held at Christ Church, Tarrytown. The funeral 
procession passed over the bridge which is immortalized 
in " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," and which was 
draped with black for the occasion. 

IRVING'S WORKS. 
Short Stories and Sketches. 
1807. Salmagundi. 
1819-20. The Sketch-Book. 

Crayon Papers. 
1822. Bracebridge Hall. 
1855. Wolfert's Roost. 

History, Romance, Travel, and Adventure. 

1809. History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker. 

A humorous account of the settlement by the Dutch. 
1824. Tales of a Traveller. 
1829. Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada. 

1831. Voyages of the Companions of Columbus. 

1832. The Alhambra. 

1835. A Tour on the Prairies. (Crayon Miscellany.) 

1835. Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey. (Crayon Miscellany.) 

1835. Legends of the Conquest of Spain. (Crayon Miscellany.) 

1836. Astoria. An Account of John Jacob Astor's settlement on 

the Columbia River, Oregon. 

1837. The Adventures of Captain Bonneville. 

Biographies. 

1828. The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus. 

1849. Oliver Goldsmith : A Biography. 

1850. Mahomet and His Successors. 

1855-59. The Life of George Washington. 5 vols. 




WASHINGTON IRVING. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 841 

REFERENCES. 

Life and Letters of Washington Irving, by Pierre M. Irving. 
Washington Irving, by Charles Dudley Warner. American Men 

of Letters. 
Life of Washington Irving, by Richard Henry Stoddard. 
Home Life of Great Authors, by H. T. Griswold. 
Irvingiana : a Memorial of Washington Irving. 
Studies of Irving, 1880. 

Portrait of Irving. Harper's, April, 1883. Vol. LXVL 
Washington Irving, 1 by George Ripley. 

Harper's, April, 1851. Vol. II. p. 577. 
Sketch of Irving, by James Wynne. 

Harper's, Feb., 1862. Vol. XXIV. p. 349. 
Sunny side, 1 by T. A. Richards. 

Harper's, Dec, 1856. Vol. XIV. p. 1. 
The Romance of the Hudson, 1 by Benson J. Lossing. 

Harper's, April, 1876. Vol. LII. p. 643. 
The Catskills, 1 by Lucy C. Lillie. 

Harper's, Sept., 1883. Vol. LXVII. p. 521. 
The Genesis of the Rip Van Winkle Legend, by John B. Thompson. 

Harper's, Sept., 1883. Vol. LXVII. p. 617. 
Washington Irving, by Donald G. Mitchell. (Ik Marvel.) 

Atlantic, June, 1864. Vol. XIII. p. 694. 
Recollections of Irving, by his Publisher, G. P. Putnam. 

Atlantic, Nov., 1860. Vol. VI. p. 601. 
Address Delivered by William Cullen Bryant before the New York 

Historical Society, April 3, 1860. 

For many references to critical essays and sketches, see Welsh's 
English Masterpiece Course, p. 152. 

1 Illustrated. 



342 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

QUESTIONS FOE KEVIEW. 

1. When and where was Irving born? 

2. What can you say of his father? 

3. In what two ways do we associate the name of Irving 

with that of George Washington ? 

4. With what event do we associate the birth of Irving? 

5. How many brothers and sisters had he? 

6. Where was his early home? 

7. What can you say of Irving as a boy? 

8. What were his home influences ? 

9. Where and how was he educated? 

10. What do you know about his early literary tastes? 

11. Why did he not go to Columbia College? 

12. Which of his brothers were studying there? 

13. What was Irving's first literary work? 

14. How old was he then ? 

15. With whom did he study law? 

16. How old was he when he began his law studies? 

17. How old when he was admitted to the bar? 

18. How did he occupy the intervening years? 

19. Which works of Irving's are associated with the scenes 

of his vacation rambles ? 

20. What can you say of his first journey abroad? 

21. What literary work employed his leisure in 1802? 

22. What nom-de-plume did he use in this work? 

23. With whom was Irving then studying law? 

24. Who was Matilda Hoffman? 

25. How old was Irving when she died? 

26. Which of his works was published during that year? 

27. Under what nom-de-plume ? 

28. What magazines did he edit? When? 

29. What can you say of the firm of Irving Brothers? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 343 

30. When and why did Irving make his second voyage to 

Europe ? 

31. When did his literary career really begin? 

32. Under what nom-de-plume did he write "The Sketch- 

Book"? 

33. What were Irving's relations with Sir Water Scott? 

34. What other authors did he meet abroad? 

35. How long was his second sojourn in Europe? 

36. How many of these years were spent in Spain? 

37. Which of his works are associated with that country? 

38. What public office did he hold in London from 1829 to 

1831? 

39. What honors were conferred upon him during this period ? 

40. What work was published in the year of his return to 

America ? 

41 . How was he welcomed home ? 

42. What authors are associated with "Abbotsford and New- 

stead Abbey " ? 

43. What books resulted from Irving's journey through the 

West? 

44. When and why did Irving make his third voyage to 

Europe ? 

45. What two works were published soon after his return? 

46. Give the history of " Sunny side." 

47. How did Irving repay the kindness of his brothers? 

48. What was his last work? 

49. When and where did he die? 

50. How old was he? 

51. Where was he buried? 

52. What can you say of his habits and character? 

53. What of the style of his writings? 

54. Can you name any of Irving's friends among American 

writers ? 

55. Who was his biographer? 



344 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW. 

Born at Portland, Maine, Feb. 27, 1807. 
Died at Cambridge, Mass., March 24, 1882. 

Home Circle. — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was 
the second son of Stephen Longfellow, a lawyer of 
Portland. There were three other sons and four 
daughters. The mother was a descendant of John 
Alden and the daughter of General Wadsworth, a 
Revolutionary officer. 

Early Home. — Longfellow was born in a house which 
is still standing at the corner of Fore and Hancock 
Streets. A few months later, the family removed to 
Mrs. Longfellow's old home — the Wadsworth house — 
on Congress Street, now occupied by the poet's sister, 
Mrs. Pierce. Here Longfellow's early life was passed. 
The poem " My Lost Youth " contains references to 
Portland, the poet's early home. 

School Life. — In private schools and in the " town 
school " of Portland, Longfellow received his early 
education. He was prepared for college at the Port- 
land Academy. Even when a boy, he was fond of 
books, and made rapid progress in his studies. 

College Life. — When only fourteen years of age, 
Longfellow was admitted to Bowdoin College, in the 
same class with his elder brother Stephen, Nathaniel 
Hawthorne, and John S. C. Abbott. He was graduated 
in 1825, ranking second in a class of thirty-seven mem- 
bers. At the Commencement exercises, he delivered 
an oration upon the subject " Our Native Writers." It 




M OLA^AJLf ^ I , ^O^^D, 



aJjL^V^ 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 345 

was the wish of his class that he should be their class 
poet ; but the professors decided that he ought to re- 
ceive instead an appointment which would show his 
high rank as a scholar. 

Professional Studies. — For nearly a year after his 
graduation, Longfellow studied law in his father's office, 
but he did not find the work congenial to his tastes and 
he was well pleased to turn his thoughts in another 
direction. 

Professorships. — In 1826, it was decided to establish 
at Bowdoin College a professorship of modern languages 
and literature ; and Longfellow, then only nineteen 
years old, was chosen to fill the chair. In order to pre- 
pare for this work, he spent nearly four years in Spain, 
France, Italy, and Germany. In 1829, the young pro- 
fessor entered upon his duties at Bowdoin. He was 
enthusiastic in his work, and determined to succeed. 
Finding no suitable text-books for his classes, he pre- 
pared and published for their use elementary grammars 
of the French, Italian, and Spanish languages. 

In 1835, Prof. George Ticknor resigned his position 
as Professor of Modern Languages at Harvard College, 
and Longfellow was chosen to succeed him. To pre- 
pare for the duties of this new position, he again went 
abroad and spent about two years in Denmark, Sweden, 
Germany, Holland, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, studj^- 
ing the languages of those countries. In November, 
1836, he entered upon the duties of his professorship, 
which he discharged for eighteen years, resigning in 
1854, to devote his time to literature. He was suc- 
ceeded by James Russell Lowell. 



346 JLESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Family. — In 1831, while he was professor at Bow- 
doin, Longfellow was married to Miss Mary Storer 
Potter of Portland, Me. Mrs. Longfellow went abroad 
with him in 1835, after he had received his appointment 
to Harvard. She died at Rotterdam in November of 
that year. The poem " Footsteps of Angels " contains 
a reference to her. Longfellow's second wife was Miss 
Fanny Appleton of Boston — the " Mary Ashburton " 
of " Hyperion." They were married in 1843. In 1861, 
Mrs. Longfellow was burned to death, her clothing 
taking fire from a wax taper with which she was seal- 
ing a letter. Two sons and three daughters lived to 
maturity. A fourth daughter died in infancy. 

Home. — When Longfellow became professor at Har- 
vard, he secured rooms in " the Craigie house " on 
Brattle Street, the place which Washington made his 
head-quarters while at Cambridge. In 1843, after Mrs. 
Craigie's death, Longfellow's father-in-law purchased 
for the poet and his bride the Craigie estate and a lot 
opposite the house, commanding an unobstructed view 
of the Charles River meadows. This is the lot upon 
which it is proposed to erect a statue of Longfellow. 

For forty years the Craigie house was Longfellow's 
home. The front room on the right, once occupied by 
General Washington as a reception room, was the poet's 
study. Here are still kept the original manuscripts of 
Longfellow's works, handsomely bound. By the fire- 
place stands "the children's arm-chair." The room 
over the study, once Washington's chamber, and later 
occupied by Professor Longfellow before his marriage, 
became the nursery of the poet's children. Long- 
fellow's summer home was at Nahant. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 347 

Literary Career. — Longfellow's first poem was writ- 
ten when he was about ten years old. It was entitled 
" Lovell's Fight," and was published in a Portland 
newspaper. While he was in college, he contributed 
poems to " The United States Literary Gazette." 
Among the poems written before their author was 
nineteen years old are " Autumn," " An April Day," 
" Sunrise on the Hills," and " Hymn of the Moravian 
Nuns at Bethlehem." 

From 1830 to 1840, Longfellow contributed essays to 
the " North American Review." One of these articles, 
published in 1837, was a review of Hawthorne's " Twice- 
Told Tales." In addition to his original writings, Long- 
fellow has edited several works, among which are " The 
Poets and Poetry of Europe " published in 1845 ; and 
"Poems of Places" in thirty-one volumes (1876-1879). 

Third Voyage to Europe. — In 1868-69, Mr. Long- 
fellow visited Europe for the third time, receiving 
wherever he went the most flattering attentions and 
honors. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
conferred upon him honorary degrees, and he was made 
an honorary member of many foreign literary and scien- 
tific societies. 

Morituri Salutamus. — In 1875, the semi-centennial 
celebration of the class of 1825 was held at Bowdoin 
College. Only twelve of the class were left and but 
one of their old instructors, Professor Packard. Long- 
fellow read to the large audience gathered in the church 
the poem " Morituri Salutamus," which he had written 
for the occasion. It has been called " the grandest hymn 
to age that was ever written." 



348 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

The Children's Arm-Chair. — When the Cambridge 
authorities decided to widen Brattle Street, it was 
thought necessary to cut down the great horse-chest- 
nut tree that stood before the blacksmith shop of 
Dexter Pratt. This was the " spreading chestnut 
tree " referred to in Longfellow's poem, " The Village 
Blacksmith." Mr. Longfellow protested against the 
removal of the tree, but in vain. It was then pro- 
posed that the children of the public schools of Cam- 
bridge should each contribute a small sum of money 
to pay for the making of a large arm-chair from the 
wood of the tree. This chair was presented to Mr. 
Longfellow on his seventy-second birthday, as the gift 
of the children of Cambridge. To the last, the poet 
prized the children's arm-chair as one of his chief 
treasures. All the children were invited to call and 
see it in its place of honor beside the fire-place in his 
study. To thank the children for their gift, Long- 
fellow wrote the poem, "From my Arm-Chair." 

Birthday Celebration. — Longfellow's seventy-fifth 
birthday, Feb. 27, 1882, was celebrated in the schools 
all over the United States, by recitations from the 
poet's works. Whittier's poem, " The Poet and the 
Children," refers to this celebration. 

Death. — Less than a month later, the poet passed 
away. The funeral services at his old home were con- 
ducted by his brother, the Rev. Samuel Longfellow. 
Among those present were Fields, Emerson, Holmes, 
Lowell, and Whittier. After the burial in Mount 
Auburn Cemetery, the friends assembled at Appleton 
Chapel, Harvard College, where memorial services were 
heki 



BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 349 

LONGFELLOW'S WORKS. 
Prose. 

1835. Outre-Mer; a Pilgrimage beyond the Sea. 2 vols. 
1839. Hyperion ; a Romance. 2 vols. 
1849. Kavanagh ; a Tale. 

Poetry. 

1839. Voices of the Night. 

1841. Ballads, and Other Poems. 

1842. Poems on Slavery. 

1843. The Spanish Student ; a Play in Three Acts. 
1845. The Belfry of Bruges, and Other Poems. 
1847. Evangeline ; a Tale of Acadie. 

1849. The Seaside and the Fireside. 

1851. The Golden Legend. 

1855. The Song of Hiawatha. 

1858. The Courtship of Miles Standish ; with Birds of Passage, 

Flight the First. 22 poems. 
1863. Tales of a Wayside Inn, First Day ; with Birds of Passage, 

Flight the Second. 7 poems. 
1866. Flower-de-Luce. 12 poems. 
1868. New England Tragedies. 

1865-1867. Dante's Divine Comedy. Translation. 3 vols. 
1872. The Divine Tragedy. 
1872. Christus ; a Mystery. 

!The Divine Tragedy. 
The Golden Legend. 
The New England Tragedies. 
1872. Three Books of Song. 

! Tales of a Wayside Inn, Second Day. 
Judas Maccabseus ; a Dramatic Poem. 
A Handful of Translations. 

1874. Aftermath. 

. . (Tales of a Wayside Inn, Third Day. 
Containing j Birds of Passag e 5 Flight the Third. 

1875. The Masque of Pandora, and Other Poems. 



350 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

f The Hanging of the Crane. 
Morituri Salutamus; poem for semi-centen- 
Containing I nial of Class of 1825, Bowdoin College. 
Birds of Passage, Flight the Fourth. 
A Book of Sonnets. 
1878. Keramos, and Other Poems. 

{Birds of Passage, Flight the Fifth. 
Sonnets. 
Translations. 
1880. Ultima Thule. 
1882. In the Harbor. 

REFERENCES. 

Life and Letters, by Rev. Samuel Longfellow. 

Life of Longfellow, by Francis H. Underwood. 

Life of Longfellow, by W. Sloane Kennedy. 

Life of Longfellow, by George Lowell Austin. 

Preface to Memorial Edition of Poems. 

Studies in Longfellow, by W. C. Gannett. [Outlines.] 

Literary World Longfellow Number, Vol. XII. Feb. 26, 1881. 

Home Life of Great Authors, by H. T. Griswold. 

Homes of American Authors, by George W. Curtis. 

Poets' Homes. First Series, by R. H. Stoddard. 

Poets of America, by E. C. Stedman. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, by George W. Curtis. With Por- 
trait. Harper's, June, 1882. Vol. LXV. p. 123. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1 by R. H. Stoddard. 
Scribner's, Nov., 1878. Vol. XVII. p. L 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, by E. C. Stedman. 
Century, Oct., 1883. Vol. XXVI. p. 926. 

Cambridge on the Charles, 1 by C. F. Richardson. 
Harper's, Jan., 1876. Vol. LII. p. 191. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, by George W. Curtis. 
Atlantic, Dec, 1863. Vol. XII. p. 769. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, by O. B. Frothingham. 
Atlantic, June, 1882. Vol. XLTX. p. 819. 
1 Illustrated. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 351 

Celebration of Seventy-fifth Birthday, by Maine Historical Society. 

Published in 1882. 
Old Landmarks of Middlesex, by Samuel Adams Drake. 
Paige's History of Cambridge. 

The Riverside Edition of Longfellow's works contains valuable 
notes concerning individual poems. 

For critical references, see Welsh's English Masterpiece Course, 
p. 168. 

QUESTIONS POK EEVIEW. 

1 . When and where was Longfellow born ? 

2. Who were his parents? 

3. How many brothers and sisters had he? 

4. Where did he spend his early life? 

5. What poem refers to Portland ? 

6. What was his first published poem? 

7. How old was he when he entered Bowdoin College? 

8. Mention some of his classmates. 

9. What can you say of his scholarship? 

10. When was he graduated? 

11. What poem did he write for the fiftieth anniversary of 

his class ? In what year ? 

12. What poems were published while he was in college? 

13. What can you say of his law studies? 

14. When and why did he make his first visit to Europe ■. 

15. What countries did he visit? 

16. What can you say of his meeting with Irving? 

17. In what year did he become professor at Bowdoin? 

18. How long after this was he married? To whom? 

19. How long did he remain at Bowdoin? 

20. What literary work did he perform during this period? 

21. When and under what circumstances did he make a 

second voyage to Europe ? 

22. What sorrow is associated with this visit? 



352 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

23. What countries did he visit? 

24. How long was he absent? 

25. When did he enter upon his duties as professor at 

Harvard ? 

26. Who was his predecessor in this position? 

27. How long did Longfellow remain at Harvard? 

28. Who succeeded him? 

29. What books are associated with his travels? 

30. When was u Evangeline " written? 

31. What poem was published in the year after leaving 

Harvard ? 

32. When did his second marriage occur? 

33. Describe his home. 

34. What were some of its associations? 

35. How many children had he? 

36. When and how did the second Mrs. Longfellow die? 

37. Tell the story of the " Children's Arm-Chair." 

38. How was his seventy-fifth birthday celebrated? 

39. What poem refers to the celebration? Who wrote it? 

40. What was Longfellow's last book? 

41. What does the title mean? 

42. What is the meaning of " Aftermath " ? 

43 . Why are these both appropriate titles ? 

44. When and where did Longfellow die? 

45. How old was he? 

46. What can you say of his funeral? 

47. Where is his grave ? 

48. What do you know about his character? 

49. Relate an instance of his kindness to children. 

50. Describe his personal appearance. 

51. What can you say about his style of writing? 

52. What are some of the most popular of his shorter poems ? 

53. In what poems do you find references to some of Long- 

fellow's friends ? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 353 

JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. 

Born at East Haverhill, Mass., Dec. 17, 1807. 
Still living at Amesbury and Danvers, Mass. 

Home Circle. — John Greenleaf Whittier is the eldest 
son of John Whittier, a Quaker farmer. Of the home 
circle, so beautifully described in " Snow-Bound," only 
the aged poet survives. His brother Matthew died in 
1883. The eldest sister, Mary, died in 1860, and the 
youngest, Elizabeth, four years later. Among the in- 
mates of the home were Uncle Moses Whittier and Mercy 
Hussey, the maiden sister of the poet's mother. The 
"guest" referred to in "Snow-Bound" was Miss Har- 
riet Li verm ore. 

Early Home. — Whittier's birth-place was a lonely 
farm-house, situated about three miles from Haverhill. 
Here he spent most of his time during the first twenty- 
three years of his life. Though more than two hundred 
years old, the house still stands. The Whittiers sold 
the farm in 1840, and removed to Amesbury, eight 
miles distant, where was situated the Quaker meeting- 
house which the family had always attended. 

School Life. — At seven years of age, Whittier at- 
tended the school of Joshua Coffin, who was his life- 
long friend. Later he attended the district school, 
which was kept for only three months in the year, 
with a different teacher every winter. The school- 
master mentioned in "Snow-Bound" was a student 
from Dartmouth College. In his twentieth year, 
Whittier entered Haverhill Academy, having earned 
enough money, by making shoes and slippers, to pay 



354 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

his board and tuition for six months. The following 
winter, 1827-28, was spent at West Amesbury, where 
he taught the district school. With the money thus 
earned he passed another six months' term of study at 
the Academy. 

Early Literary Career. — When Whittier was four- 
teen years old, his teacher, Joshua Coffin, lent him a 
copy of Burns's poems. These were an inspiration to the 
boy's mind, and, after reading them, he began to make 
rhymes of his own. Some of his earliest poems were 
published in the Newburyport "Free Press." They 
attracted the attention of the editor, William Lloyd 
Garrison; and it was owing to his advice that Whit- 
tier attended the Haverhill Academy. One of his first 
poems was called " The Deity." While studying at the 
Academy, he wrote for the Haverhill " Gazette." 

Writing's for Periodicals. — Most of Whittier's works 
made their first appearance in magazines and papers. 
Among the periodicals to which he has contributed are 
the following : — 

The American Manufacturer. 

The New England Weekly Review* 

The Yankee. 

The New England Magazine. 

The Middlesex Standard. 

The Atlantic Monthly. 

Editorial Duties. 

1831-32. Editor of "New England Weekly Review," Hartford, 
Conn. 

1836. Editor of Haverhill " Gazette " (six months). 

1838-40. Editor of "Pennsylvania Freeman, " Philadelphia. 

1847-59. Corresponding editor of "The National Era," Wash- 
ington, D.G. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 355 

Anti-Slavery Work. — In 1833, Whittier engaged 
with his friend Garrison in the work of arousing public 
sentiment against slavery. In that year, he published 
a pamphlet on the abolition of slavery. It was entitled 
" Justice and Expediency." In 1837, he spent three 
months in New York as secretary of the Anti-Slavery 
Society. 

In connection with this work, he contributed both 
prose and verse to various papers and magazines, in- 
cluding — 

The Liberator. 

The Emancipator. 

The Pennsylvania Freeman. 

The National Era. 

The Anti-Slavery Standard. 

Most of the poems were collected in a volume, enti- 
tled " Voices of Freedom." 

Homes. — For most of the time since 1840, Whittier's 
home has been at Amesbury, Mass. After the death of 
his father, the poet, with his aunt, his mother, and his 
younger sister, removed to the house which is still 
nominally his home, although most of his time is spent 
with relatives at " Oak Knoll," in Danvers, a few miles 
distant. Whittier has never married. 

WHITTIER'S WORKS. 

Prose. 

1831. Legends of New England. (Prose and Verse.) 

1845. The Stranger in Lowell. 

1847. Supernaturalism in New England. 

1849. Leaves from Margaret Smith's Journal. 

1850. Old Portraits and Modern Sketches. 
1854. Literary Recreations and Miscellanies. 



356 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Poetry. 
1832. Moll Pitcher. 

1836. Mogg Megone. 

1843. Lays of My Home, and Other Poems. 

1848. The Bridal of Pennacook. 

1849. The Voices of Freedom. 

1850. Songs of Labor, and Other Poems. 

1 853. The Chapel of the Hermits. 

1854. A Sabbath Scene. 

1856. The Panorama, and Other Poems. 

1 860. Home Ballads, and Other Poems. 

1863. In War Time, and Other Poems. 

1866. Snow-Bound : a Winter Idyl. 

1867. The Tent on the Beach, and Other Poems. 

1868. Among the Hills, and Other Poems. 

1870. Miriam, and Other Poems. 

1872. The Pennsylvania Pilgrim, and Other Poems. 

1874. Mabel Martin. 

1878. The Vision of Echard, and Other Poems. 

1881. The King's Missive, and Other Poems. 
1883. The Bay of Seven Islands, and Other Poems. 
1887. Saint Gregory's Guest, and Other Poems. 

Books Edited by Whittier. 
1832. The Literary Remains of J. G. C. Brainard. 

1837. Views of Slavery and Emancipation, by Harriet Martineau. 
1837. Letters from John Quincy Adams to his Constituents. 

1871. Child-Life : a Collection of Poems. 

1873. The Journal of John Woolman. 
1873. Child-Life in Prose. 

1875. Songs of Three Centuries. 

1875. Hazel Blossoms. Poems by Elizabeth Whittier. 

1882. Letters of Lydia Maria Child. 

REFERENCES. 
Life of Whittier, by F. H. Underwood. 
Life of Whittier, by W. Sloane Kennedy. 
Home Life of Great Authors, by H. T. Griswold. 




^Jd-Jc^^&i^ 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES, 357 

Homes of American Authors. 

Poets' Homes, 1st series. 

Poets of America, by E. C. Stedman. 

Boyhood of Whittier, 1 by W. H. Rideing. 

St. Nicholas, Oct., 1887. 
John Greenleaf Whittier, 1 by R. H. Stoddard. 

Scribner's, Aug., 1879. Vol. XVIII. p. 569. 
The Quaker Poet, 1 by Harriet Prescott SpofTord. 

Harper's, Jan., 1884. Vol. LXVIII. p. 171. 
The Local Associations of Whittier's Poems, 1 by George M. 

White. Harpers, Feb., 1883. Vol. LXVI. p. 353. 
A Visit to the Birthplace of Whittier, by C. L. Forten. 

Scribner's, Sept., 1872. Vol. IV. p. 581. 
Portrait of Whittier. 

Harpers, Jan., 1884. Vol. LXVIII. p. 170. 
John Greenleaf Whittier, by D. A. Wasson. 

Atlantic, March, 1864. Vol. XIII. p. 331. 
Outlines for a Study of Holmes, Bryant, and Whittier. [Leaflet.] 
A Whittier Xumber of The Literal^ World was issued on the 

occasion of his seventieth birthday. December, 1877. Vol. 

VIII. p. 123. 

For critical references, see Welsh's English Masterpiece Course, 
p. 166. 

QUESTIONS POR REVIEW. 

1 . When and where was Whittier born ? 

2. Who was his father? 

3. How many brothers and sisters had he? 

4. Describe his early home. 

5. What poem refers to his early home-life? 

6. Who was Moses Whittier? 

7. Who was Mercy Hussey? 

8. What can you say of Whittier's early education? 

1 Illustrated. 



358 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

9. Who advised him to enter the Academy? 

10. How did he pay his expenses there? 

11. How long did he remain at the Academy? 

12. Where did he teach school? 

13. Did Whittier go to college? 

14. What do yon think of his educational advantages, as 

compared with your own? 

15. How can you account for his success? 

16. What seems to have first suggested to him the writing 

of poetry ? 

17. Where were his early poems published? 

18. What was the title of one of them? 

19. Mention some of the periodicals to which he has con- 

tributed. 

20. What was the title of his first book? 

21. When was this published? 

22. Was this earlier or later than Longfellow's first book? 

23. What was Longfellow doing at this time? 

24. What can you say of Irving's fame at this time? 

25. What book did Bryant publish in the same year? 

26. What literary work did Whittier do in Hartford, Conn.? 

27. For how long? 

28. What were his relations with William Lloyd Garrison? 

29. To what periodicals did he contribute articles against 

slaver} 7 ? 

30. What volume contains some of these anti-slavery poems ? 

31. What other work did he do for the anti-slavery move- 

ment? 

32. What association had Whittier with the "Haverhill 

Gazette " ? 

33. What Philadelphia paper did he edit? 

34. For how long? 

35. What was his connection with the " National Era"? 

36. Did he reside in Washington meanwhile? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 359 

37. What poems were about war topics? 

38. What sorrow came to Whittier in 1864? 

39. Where was he then living? 

40. How long has this been his nominal home? 

41. How many of his household then remained? 

42. How many now ? 

43. What can you say about his Amesbury home? 

44. What about the relations between himself and younger 

sister ? 

45. What is the title of her little book of poems? 

46. Can you find any of his poems which contain references 

to her ? 

47. Was Whittier ever married? 

48. Can you find in his poems any suggestions of a possible 

romance in his life ? 

49. What literary work has Whittier done since 1882? 

50. Where does he spend most of his time? 

51. How old is he? 

52. What do you know about him as a man? 

53. What are his most popular poems? 

54. Has he ever been abroad? 

55. What do his poems tell us about his friendships? 



360 LESSONS IN ENGLISH, 

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. 

Born at Salem, Mass., July 4, 1804. 
Died at Plymouth, N. H., May 19, 1864. 
Buried at Concord, Mass., May 23, 1864. 

Home Circle. — Nathaniel Hawthorne was the only 
son of Nathaniel Hathorne, a Salem sea captain. When 
the younger Nathaniel became a man he changed the 
spelling of the family name. There were two sisters, 
one older and one younger than Nathaniel. Captain 
Hathorne died in South America when Nathaniel was 
only four years old. 

Early Life. — After the death of Hawthorne's father 
the family removed to Mrs. Hawthorne's old home in 
Herbert Street, where they remained until Nathaniel 
was thirteen years old. Hawthorne's childhood was a 
strange and sad one. His mother was so burdened 
with grief at the death of her husband that she secluded 
herself from all her friends. The sisters, too, as they 
grew up, lived apart from society and even from their 
own family circle, each occupied with her own pursuits. 
There was little brightness or gayety in Hawthorne's 
early home. When he was nine years old he was 
injured by a ball, so that for three years he was lame 
and unable to attend school. During this time he was 
taught at home by Joseph Worcester, compiler of the 
dictionary. Soon after, the family removed to Maine, 
near Sebago Lake. The new home was a lonely place. 
There were formed the habits of solitude which made 
Hawthorne appear so eccentric when he became a man. 
Having no companions to enjoy the sport with him, 
he would skate all alone on the lake until after mid- 




~tx^c*^f ^dJrZ%^Y^. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 361 

night, on moonlight nights. He took delight in ram- 
bling about in the woods near his home. His uncle 
having offered to send him to college, he occupied most 
of his time in study. 

College Iiife. — In 1821, he entered Bowdoin College. 
In the Class of '25 were also John S. C. Abbott, and 
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Horatio Bridge and 
Franklin Pierce were in the class above Hawthorne, 
but were his best friends. 

Early Literary Career, — When Hawthorne was a 
little boy, his taste for literature became apparent. He 
would pore for hours over Spenser's " Faerie Queene," 
Thomson's " Castle of Indolence," and Bunyan's " Pil- 
grim's Progress." Very early, too, he began to write in 
note-books his impressions of what he heard and saw 
and read. While he was confined to the house by his 
lameness, he wrote a little newspaper, " edited and pub- 
lished by Nathaniel Hawthorne." During the thirteen 
years following his graduation, Hawthorne remained at 
his old home in Salem, spending the days in studying 
and writing and the evenings in long solitary walks. 
During this time he wrote his first novel, "Fanshawe," 
a story of life at Bowdoin College ; also most of the 
stories which were contained in the "Twice-Told 
Tales." In 1836, he spent four months in Boston, 
editing a magazine. Here he wrote "Seven Tales of 
My Native Land," which he afterwards destroyed. 

Boston Custom House. — In 1838, Hawthorne re- 
ceived from George Bancroft, then collector of the port 
of Boston, a situation as weigher and gauge r in the 
Boston Custom House. Here he remained two years. 



362 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Brook Farm. — After leaving this situation, Haw- 
thorne spent a year (1840-41) at Brook Farm, a social- 
istic community at West Roxbury, near Boston. "The 
Blithedale Romance," written eleven years later, is 
founded upon his experiences in this community. 

Family. — In 1842, Hawthorne married Miss Sophia 
Peabqdy of Salem. The first three years after his mar- 
riage were passed at " The Old Manse " in Concord, 
Mass., adjoining the Revolutionary battle-field. During 
these years were written the stories and sketches which 
were published in two volumes as " Mosses from an Old 
Manse." Hawthorne had two daughters. His only 
son, Julian, is the well-known novelist. After Haw- 
thorne's death, his widow and his daughters edited the 
" Note-Books." 

Salem Custom House. — The necessity for a steady 
income caused Hawthorne to remove from Concord to 
Salem, where in 1846 he was appointed surveyor of the 
port. Deprived of this office in 1849, he again turned 
his attention to literature, and wrote " The Scarlet Let- 
ter," the book which made him famous. 

Other Homes. — Soon after Hawthorne completed 
"The Scarlet Letter," the family removed to Lenox, 
where they lived in a little house which Hawthorne 
called " the red shanty." Here he wrote " The House 
of the Seven Gables," and parts of "The Wonder 
Book " and " Tanglewood Tales." While boarding at 
West Newton, during the winter of 1851-52, he wrote 
"The Blithedale Romance." In 1852, Hawthorne 
bought a house in Concord. He called his new home 
« The Wayside." 



/ 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 363 

Consulship. — -In 1853, he was appointed Consul to 
Liverpool by President Pierce. While living in Eng- 
land (1853-57) he collected material for " Our Old 
Home " — a book of sketches of English life. 

European Travels. — After leaving Liverpool, he 
passed three years upon the continent. While spend- 
ing a winter in Florence, he wrote the greater part of 
" The Marble Faun." The book was completed at 
Redcar, England, and was published in that country 
under the title " Transformation." 

Return to America. — In 1860, Hawthorne and his 
family returned to Concord, Mass. During the next- 
four years, he remained at " The Wayside." His lit- 
erary work during this period consisted of " Septimius 
Felton, or the Elixir of Life " ; " The Ancestral Foot- 
step " ; and " Dr. Grimshawe's Secret." The last two 
were to have been woven into a new novel, " The Dol- 
liver Romance," which Hawthorne was to contribute 
as a serial to " The Atlantic Monthly." Only three 
chapters were completed. 

Death. — Hoping to benefit his failing health, Haw- 
thorne and his friend ex-President Pierce, started on a 
carriage drive through part of New Hampshire. They 
stopped for the night at a hotel in Plymouth, N.H. 
Early the next morning, May 19, 1864, Hawthorne was 
found dead in his bed. 

Funeral. — May 23, the funeral services were held 
at his old home in Concord. Among those present were 
Longfellow, Pierce, Agassiz, Fields, Bridge, Whittier, 
Emerson, Lowell, and Holmes. The unfinished "Dolli- 



364 



LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



ver Romance " lay upon the coffin during the services. 
The manuscript is now in the Concord Public Library. 
Longfellow's poem, " Hawthorne," refers to the funeral 
day. 



HAWTHORNE'S WORKS. 



1851. 

1837. 
1846. 

1828. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 

1858. 



► Books for Children. 



Published 

after 

his 

death. 



Grandfather's Chair. 
Biographical Stories. 
The Wonder Book. 
Tangle-wood Tales. 

Twice-Told Tales. 2 vols. 

Mosses from an Old Manse. 2 vols. 

Fanshawe. Published anonymously. 

The Scarlet Letter. 

The House of the Seven Gables. 

The Blithedale Komance. 

The Marble Faun, or Transformation. 

Septimius Felton, or The Elixir of Life. 

The Dolliver Romance. 3 chapters. 



Short Stories. 



Y Novels. 



J 



Dr. Grimshawe's Secret. 



}■ Sketches. 



The Ancestral Footstep. ) 

Note-Books. { En S lish - (Our Old Home.) 
( French, American, Italian. 



REFERENCES. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Wife, by Julian Hawthorne. 
Sketch of Hawthorne's Life, by George Parsons Lathrop. 
A Study of Hawthorne, by George Parsons Lathrop. 
Nathaniel Hawthorne, by James Russell Lowell. 
Yesterdays with Authors, by James T. Fields. 
Hawthorne among His Friends, by George H. Holden. 

Harper's, July, 1881. Vol. LXIII. p. 260. 
Scenes of Hawthorne's Romances, 1 by Julian Hawthorne. 

Century, July, 1884. Vol. XXVIII. p. 380. 

1 Illustrated. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 365 

The Salem of Hawthorne, 1 by Julian Hawthorne. 

Century, May, 1884. Vol. XXVIII. p. 3. 
Scenes from the Marble Faun, 1 by W. L. Alden. 

Scribner's, Sept., 1871. Vol. II. p. 493. 
Hawthorne's Last Bequest, by T. W. Higginson. 

Scribner's, Xov., 1872. Vol. V. p. 100. 
Portrait of Hawthorne. Harper's, July, 1886. 
A Look into Hawthorne's Workshop, by Julian Hawthorne. 

Century, Jan., 1883. Vol. XXV. p. 433. 
Hawthorne, by Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

Atlantic, July, 1864. Vol. XIV. p. 98. 
Hawthorne in the Boston Custom House. [Letters.] 

Atlantic, Jan., 1868. Vol. XXL p. 106. 
Xathaniel Hawthorne, 1 by R. H. Stoddard. 

Harper's, Oct., 1872. Vol. XLV. p. 683. 
The Genius of Hawthorne, by Elizabeth P. Peabody. 

Atlantic, Sept., 1868. Vol. XXII. p. 359. 
History of Hawthorne's Last Romance, by George Parsons Lathrop. 

Atlantic, Oct., 1872. Vol. XXX. p. 452. 
English Xote-Books of Hawthorne, by C. S. Hillard. 

Atlantic, Sept., 1870. Vol. XXVI. p. 257. 
Introduction to " The Scarlet Letter." 
Introduction to " Mosses from an Old Manse." 

For critical references, see Welsh's English Masterpiece Course, 
p, 184. 

QUESTIONS POK EEVIEW. 

1. When and where was Hawthorne born? 

2. Who was his father? 

3. Under what circumstances did his father die? 

4. What can you say of Hawthorne's boyhood? 

5. Who was his teacher? 

6. What do you know about his life in Maine? 

1 Illustrated, 



366 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

7. How old was he when he entered college? 

8. What have we already learned about this class of 1825, 

at Bowdoin? 

9. Was he a good scholar? 

10. Did he show literary tastes in his early years? 

11. What can you say of his habits during the thirteen years 

after his graduation ? 

12. What literary work was done in that period? 

13. Under what circumstances did Hawthorne spend two 

years in Boston? 

14. Had he lived there before? 

15. Where and what was " Brook Farm"? 

16. When and whom did Hawthorne marry? 

17. Describe the home to which he took his bride. 

18. How many children had he? 

19. Why did he return to Salem? 

20. When and under what circumstances was " The Scarlet 

Letter" written? 

21. Why did he move to Lenox? 

22. What books were written at " the red shanty"? 

23. Where did he write-" The Blithedale Romance"? 

24. Describe Hawthorne's second home in Concord. 

25. What foreign appointment did he receive? 

26. How long did he remain abroad? 

27. What books were written during this time? 

28. What was " Transformation " ? 

29. In what year did Hawthorne return to America? 

30. What literary work did he do in the next four years? 

31. What was " The Dolliver Romance " ? 

32. Do you know anything of Hawthorne's journey to Phila- 

delphia, in the spring of 1864? 

33. What were the circumstances of Hawthorne's death? 

34. How old was he? 

35. When and where did he die? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 367 

36. What can you tell about his funeral? 

37. Who wrote a poem about it? 

38. Where is his grave? 

39. Where are his wife and daughter brried? 

40. What can you say of Hawthorne's character? 

41. What of his style as a writer? 

42. What book made him famous? 

43. Upon what is " Septimius Felton " founded? 

44. What experience of his suggested u The Blithedale Ro- 

mance"? 

45. What can you say of his " Note-Books "? 

46. Who were some of his friends? 

47. What was the fate of his younger sister? 

48. How do you account for the change of spelling in the 

name " Hathorne " ? 



368 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. 

Born at Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 29, 1809. 
Still living, at Boston, Mass. 

Home Circle. — Oliver Wendell Holmes is the son 
of the Rev. Abiel Holmes, pastor of the First Church in 
Cambridge, and author of "American Annals," the first 
careful record of American history written after the 
Revolution. The author's mother was the daughter of 
Hon. Oliver Wendell, an eminent lawyer. There were 
two sons and three daughters in the family. 

Early Home. — Holmes's birth-place was close by 
Harvard College, and opposite the Cambridge Common. 
" Upon the steps of this house stood President Langdon 
of Harvard College, and prayed for the men, who, halt- 
ing there a few moments, marched forward under 
Colonel Prescott's lead, to throw up intrenchments on 
Bunker's Hill, on the night of June 16, 1775." The 
house, which was formerly called " the Hastings House," 
was the head-quarters of Gen. Artemas Ward and of 
the Committee of Safety, just before the Revolution. 
It was but a few minutes' walk from the homes of Low- 
ell and Longfellow. It was torn down in 1884, to make 
room for a college building. 

School Life. — His education began at a little private 
school in the neighborhood. Afterwards he spent five 
years at a school in Cambridgeport. At the age of 
fifteen, he was sent to Phillips Academy, Andover, to 
prepare for college. Dr. Holmes says of himself, " I 
was moderately studious, and very fond of reading 
stories, which I sometimes did in school hours. I was 




OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 369 

fond also of whispering, and my desk bore sad witness 
to my passion for whittling." 

College Life. — Holmes entered Harvard College in 
the class of 1829. Among his class-mates referred to 
in his poem " The Boys " are Benjamin Pierce, Rev. 
James Freeman Clarke, and Rev. Samuel F. Smith, 
author of the hymn, " My Country, 'tis of Thee." 
Charles Sumner, and Holmes's cousin, Wendell Phillips, 
were in college with him, but in lower classes. Holmes 
was the class poet, and frequently contributed to the 
college papers. He had a high rank as a student. 

Professional Studies. — After his graduation, Holmes 
studied law at Harvard for one year. Finding that he 
had mistaken his profession, he turned his attention to 
medicine, which he studied at Harvard for two years and 
a half, and then continued his studies at Paris and Edin- 
burgh, returning to Harvard to take his degree in 1836. 

Professorships. — In 1839, Holmes was appointed 
Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Dartmouth 
College, but remained there only a year or two, resign- 
ing his situation in order to devote his time to medical 
practice. In 1847, he was made Professor of Anatomy 
and Physiology at the Harvard Medical College. He 
resigned this position in 1882, but was retained as Pro- 
fessor Emeritus. 

Medical Practice. — Holmes's work as a physician 
began in 1836, and has been continued since then, 
in connection with his work as author, lecturer, and 
teacher. During most of this time he has lived in 
Boston, where he is known as one of the city's most 
popular and successful physicians. 



370 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Family. — In 1840, Holmes was married to Miss 
Amelia Lee Jackson. He has two sons and one 
daughter. 

Literary Career. — While he was a law-student, 
Holmes contributed to the " Collegian " a few poems, 
among which were : — 

Evening : by a Tailor. 

The Meeting of the Dryads. 

The Spectre Pig. 

At about this time Holmes published " Old Ironsides," 
a protest against the proposed breaking up of the frigate 
Constitution. This poem was printed in the Boston 
"Daily Advertiser," and attracted much attention. 
In 1857, when the " Atlantic Monthly" was established, 
Professor Lowell consented to edit it, only on condition 
that Holmes should be a regular contributor. Since 
that time, many of Dr. Holmes's writings have made 
their first appearance in the pages of this magazine. 

Visit to England. — In 1886, Dr. Holmes made his 
( second voyage to Europe. Accompanied by his daughter, 
he visited many places of interest, particularly in Eng- 
land. The great universities conferred upon him honor- 
ary degrees, and he was everywhere warmly welcomed. 
"Our Hundred Days in Europe " is a charming account 
of his travels. 

HOLMES'S WORKS. 
Prose. 



1857. The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. 

1859. The Professor at the Breakfast Table. 

1871. The Poet at the Breakfast Table. 

1885. The New Portfolio. 

1887. Our Hundred Days in Europe. 



Serials 

in 
Atlantic 
Monthly. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 



371 



1861. Elsie Venner. 1 

1867. The Guardian Angel, J- Novels. 

1887. A Mortal Antipathy. J 

1864. Soundings from the Atlantic. ) Sketches and 

1871. Mechanism in Thoughts and Morals. ) Essays. 

1861. Currents and Counter Currents. ) Scientific 

1862. Border Lines of Knowledge. ) Essays. 
Memoir of John Lothrop Motley. ) Biographical 

1885. Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson. J Sketches. 

Poetry. 
1830-1849. Early Poems. 
1849-1861. Songs in Many Keys. 
1851-1877. Poems of the Class of '29. 
1862-1874. Songs of Many Seasons. 
1862-1874. Songs of Many Seasons. 
1880. The Iron Gate, and Other Poems. 

1888. Before the Curfew, and Other Poems. 

REFERENCES. 
Life of Holmes, by E. E. Brown. 
Life of Holmes, by W. Sloane Kennedy. 
Home Life of Great Authors, by H. T. Griswold. 
Homes of American Authors, by G. W. Curtis. 
Poets' Homes, by R. H. Stoddard. 
Poets of America, by E. C. Stedman. 
American Humorists, by Haweis. 
Oliver Wendell Holmes, by E. C. Stedman. With Portrait. 

Century, Feb., 1885. Vol. XXIX. p. 503. 
Oliver Wendell Holmes, 1 by F. H. Underwood. 

Scribner's, May, 1879. Vol. XVIII. p. 117. 
Cambridge on the Charles, 1 by C. F. Richardson. 

Harper's, Jan., 1876. Vol. LIL p. 191. 
The Holmes Breakfast. Supplement to the Atlantic Monthly, Feb.^ 

1880. Vol. XLV. p. 289. 
Outlines for a Study of Holmes, Bryant, and Whittier. [Leaflet.] 

For critical references, see Welsh's English Masterpiece Course, 
p. 172. 

1 Illustrated. 



372 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

QUESTIONS FOB KEVIEW. 

1. When and where was Holmes born? 

2. Who was his father? 

3. How man j 7 brothers and sisters had he? 

4. What is the history of his birthplace? 

5. What other authors lived near him? 

6. What do you know about his boyhood? 

7. Where did he attend school? 

8. What does he tell us of his school-days? 

9. Where was Holmes prepared for college? 

10. How old was he when he entered Harvard? 

11. Name other famous members of the Class of '29. 

12. What do you know about any of them? 

13. What poem contains personal references to his class- 

mates ? 

14. Who was Wendell Phillips? 

15. What can you say of Holmes's choice of a profession? 

16. What are some of the poems written during his student 

life? 

17. Where did he study medicine? 

18. Which of his humorous poems are upon medical subjects ? 

19. When did he take the degree of M.D. ? 

20. For how long did he devote his time to practice? 

21. What appointment did he receive in 1839? 

22. How long did he remain there? 

23. When and whom did he marry? 

24. Where and how did he spend the next six years? 

25. When did he become professor at Harvard? 

26. Did he continue his medical practice? 

27. When did he resign his professorship at Harvard? 

28. What is the meaning of " Professor Emeritus"? 

29. What can you say about his home? 

30. How many children has he? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 373 

31. Why is he so often called " The Autocrat "? 

32. What does the word mean ? 

33. What do you know about " The Breakfast-Table Series" ? 

34. What is the history of the poem " Old Ironsides " ? 

35. How many times has Holmes been abroad? 

36. What honors did he receive in England? 

37. What can you say of him as a physician? 

38. What of his reputation as a lecturer? 

39. What of his character and habits? 

40. What of his style as a writer? 

41. What poems has he written about any of the other 

authors ? 

42. What are some of his best-known poems? 



374 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. 

Born in Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 22, 1819. 
Still living in Cambridge. 

Home Circle. — James Russell Lowell is the youngest 
child of the Rev. Dr. Charles Lowell. There were two 
other sons and two daughters. 

Home. — Except during his residence abroad, Lowell 
has always lived at "Elmwood," the house in which he 
was born. The house was built by Peter Oliver, a 
stamp distributer, just before the Revolution. It was 
afterwards occupied by Elbridge Gerry, Vice-President 
of the United States. The poet's father bought the 
place in 1818. It is not far from Longfellow's home, 
and the extensive grounds reach almost to the gate of 
Mt. Auburn Cemetery. 

School Life. — Lowell first attended a private school 
which was held in the house next to " Elmwood." He 
was prepared for college at a classical school in Boston. 
From his mother he inherited a love for the beautiful, 
and a passion for old legends and ballads. He was fond 
of reading, but did not enjoy hard work in arithmetic 
and algebra. 

College Life. — In his sixteenth year, Lowell was 
admitted to Harvard College, and was graduated in 
1838. Among his class-mates was William W. Story, 
the sculptor and poet. The Rev. Edward Everett Hale 
was in the class following. Lowell was the class poet, 
but did not take a high rank as a student. He says 
that, while in college, he read almost everything except 
the prescribed text-books. 




JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 375 

Law Studies. — After leaving college, Lowell entered 
the Harvard Law School, completing the course in 1840. 
He opened an office in Boston, but did not seriously 
engage in practice, preferring to devote his time to 
literary work. 

Literary Career. — When in his twenty-second year, 
Lowell published his first volume of poems, " A Year's 
Life." From time to time, he wrote essays for " The 
Boston Miscellany," and contributed prose and verse to 
" Putnam's Monthly." A second volume of poems ap- 
peared in 1844. In 1845, he published a book of essays 
entitled " Conversations on the Poets." " The Vision 
of Sir Launfal " was written in 1847. In 1849, Lowell's 
poems were collected and published in two volumes. 
"The Biglow Papers," in two volumes, published in 
1846 and 1861, are written in the Yankee dialect and 
contain fine specimens of Lowell's humor. Most of 
Lowell's later writings have been published in "The 
Atlantic Monthly." 

Editorial Work. — In 1843, Lowell, in partnership 
with Robert Carter, undertook to edit and publish a 
magazine, " The Pioneer." Only three numbers were 
issued. Poe's poem, " Lenore," and Whittier's " Lines 
Written in the Book of a Friend," appeared in these 
pages, as did also two stories by Hawthorne. Lowell 
was editor of "The Atlantic Monthly" from 1857 to 
1862, when he was succeeded by James T. Fields. 

Lectures. — In the winter of 1854-55, Lowell deliv- 
ered a course of twelve lectures on "English Poetry," 
at the Lowell Institute in Boston. 



376 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Professorship. — In 1854, he succeeded Longfellow 
as Professor of Belles-lettres at Harvard College, hav- 
ing leave of absence for two years, to prepare for his 
work. He studied in Europe, chiefly in Dresden. He 
still holds the rank of professor in the college. 

Family. — Lowell's first wife was Miss Maria White. 
Their marriage occurred in 1844. In 1851, they spent 
more than a year abroad, visiting Switzerland, France, 
and England, but living for the most part in Italy. 
Mrs. Lowell died in October, 1853, on the same night 
on which one of Longfellow's children was born. 
Longfellow's poem, "The Two Angels," refers to this 
coincidence. In 1857, Lowell was married to his 
second wife, Miss Frances Dunlap, of Portland, Maine. 
The second Mrs. Lowell died in England, in 1885. 

Several children died in infancy. References to them 
will be found in the poems, "She Came and Went," 
" The Changeling," and " The First Snow-Fall." His 
only surviving child is a daughter. 

Public Offices. — In 1877, Lowell was appointed min- 
ister to Spain, by President Hayes. In 1879, he was 
transferred to London, and was retained as minister to 
England until the beginning of President Cleveland's 
administration. 

LOWELL'S WORKS. 

Prose. 

1845. Conversations on the Poets. ) Mainly 

1871, 1876. Among My Books. 2 vols. > Literary Criticisms. 
1864. Fireside Travels. A series of letters to his friend Story. 
1870. My Study Windows. Sketches and Essays. 

1887. -Democracy and Other Addresses. 

1888. Nathaniel Hawthorne. American Men of Letters, 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 377 

Poetry. 

1842. A Year's Life. 

1849. Poems. 2 vols. 

1846. Biglow Papers. 1st Series. On the Mexican War. 
1861. Biglow Papers. 2d Series. On Secession. 

1847. The Vision of Sir Launfal. 

1848. A Fable for Critics. Published anonymously, and contain- 

ing descriptions of American authors. 

1869. Under the Willows, and Other Poems. 

1870. The Cathedral. 
1888. Heartsease and Rue. 

/ Commemoration Ode, in memory of the 
July 21, 1865. 1 Harvard students who lost their lives in 
( the War for the Union. 
Four April 19, 1875. Centennial of Battle of Concord. 
Odes. I r Under the Old Elm. Centennial celebra- 

July 3, 1875. 1 tion of Washington's assuming com- 
( mand of the American Army. 
. July 4, 1876. Centennial of American Independence. 

REFERENCES. 
Life of Lowell, 1 by F, H. Underwood. 
Life of Lowell, by E. E. Brown. 
Home Life of Great Authors, by H. T. Griswold. 
Homes of American Authors, by G. W. Curtis. 
Poets' Homes, by R. H. Stoddard. 
James Russell Lowell, 1 by F. H. Underwood. 

Harper's, Jan., 1881. Vol. LXIL p. 252. 
James Russell Lowell, by E. C. Stedman. 

Century, May, 1882. Vol. XXIV. p. 97. 
Poets of America, by E. C. Stedman. 
Cambridge on the Charles, 1 by C. F. Richardson. 

Harper's, Jan., 1876. Vol. LII. p. 206. 
James Russell Lowell. Outline Studies. [Unity Leaflet, No. 8.] 
Portrait of Lowell, with Sketch of Life and Works. 

Harper's Weekly, June 20, 1885. 

For critical references, see Welsh's English Masterpiece Course, 
p. 167. 

1 Illustrated. 



378 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

QUESTIONS TOR KEVIEW. 

1 . When and where was Lowell born ? 

2. Who was his father? 

3. How many brothers and sisters had he? 

4. Give the history of " Elm wood." 

5. Which of the other authors have lived in the neighbor- 

hood? 

6. Where did Lowell first attend school? 

7. Where was he fitted for college? 

8. How old was he when he entered Harvard? 

9. In what year was he graduated? 

10. What do you know about any of his class-mates ? 

11. What early association between Lowell and the Rev. 

Edward Everett Hale ? 

12. Can you name any books written by the latter? 

13. What can you say of Lowell as a law student? 

14. When did he publish his first book? 

15. What was its character? 

16. Mention some of the periodicals to which he has con- 

tributed. 

17. What magazine did he edit in 1843 ? 

18. Who were some of the contributors ? 

19. When and whom did he marry? 

20. When did he write " The Vision of Sir Launfal " 

21. What can you say of his first visit to Europe? 

22. What do you know about Lowell's children? 

23. What poems refer to them ? 

24. What sorrow is referred to in Longfellow's poem " The 

Two Angels " ? 

25. When did this event happen? 

26. What appointment did he receive in the following year? 

27. Whom did he succeed in this position? 

28. When and why did he make a second visit abroad? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 379 

29. What can you say of him as a lecturer? 

30. When did he become editor of ' ' The Atlantic Monthly " ? 

31. What other important event happened in the same year? 

32. Under what circumstances did he go to Europe in 1877? 

33. Why did he leave Spain? 

34. How long did he live in England? 

35. When did the second Mrs. Lowell die? 

36. What can you say about Lowell's home? 

37. How long did he edit u The Atlantic Monthly "? 

38. Who succeeded him as editor? 

39. What is the character of " The Biglow Papers " ? 

40. What are some of the most popular of his short poems? 

41. How many of these seven authors are mentioned in 

"The Fable for Critics " ? 

42. What do } T ou know of Lowell as a man? 

43. What of his style as a writer? 

44. Mention some memorable occasions for which he has 

written poems. 

45. What do you know about the Washington Elm? 

46. How is his friend Story associated with one of his prose 

works ? 



380 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. 

Born at Cummington, Mass., Nov. 3, 1794. 

Died at New York, June 12, 1878. 

Buried at Roslyn, Long Island, June 14, 1878. 

Home Circle. — William Cullen Bryant was the 
second son of Dr. Peter Bryant, of North Bridgewater, 
Mass. " Cullen," as he was called by the family, had 
four brothers and two sisters. 

Boyhood.- — Bryant's boyhood was spent in Cum- 
mington, partly in the house in which he was born and 
partly in what is known as " The Bryant Homestead," 
formerly the residence of his grandfather. He was a 
very delicate child, and his friends feared that he would 
not live to grow up ; but after reaching his sixteenth 
year, he became strong and vigorous, and, during the 
rest of his long life, his health was perfect. He was 
regarded as very precocious, having learned his alphabet 
when he was only sixteen months old ; but he modestly 
tells us in his autobiography that he was not as for- 
ward as his elder brother Austin, who had read the 
Bible through before he had completed his fourth year ! 
Bryant's father, although a hard-working country doc- 
tor, in very moderate circumstances, was fond of read- 
ing, and had what was, in those days, a large library. 
He took much interest in the education of his children. 
The family lived at a considerable distance from other 
houses, and there was little social enjoyment outside 
their own household ; consequently, books became their 
companions, and even their games grew out of their 
reading. Bryant tells us that when he and his elder 
brother had read Pope's translation of the Iliad, they 






BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 381 

made for themselves wooden shields, swords, and spears, 
and fashioned helmets out of old hats, with tow for 
plumes ; then, in the old barn they " fought the battles 
of the Greeks and Trojans over again." 

School Life. — Bryant's early education was received 
in the district school at Cummington, and from his 
father at home. It having been decided that he should 
go to college, he was sent in his fifteenth year, to study 
Latin with his uncle, at North Brookfield, where he 
spent eight months. Soon after, he spent a few months 
in the study of Greek and Mathematics with Rev. Moses 
Hallock of Plainfield, who had a great reputation for 
his success in preparing boys for college. After study- 
ing Greek for two months, Bryant could read the New 
Testament from beginning to end almost as well in 
Greek as he could in English. The rest of his prepara- 
tion for college was made at home, without any teacher. 

College Life. — In order to save expense, Bryant did 
by himself all the work required for the first year at 
college, and was admitted to the Sophomore class at 
Williams College, in 1810. The course of study was 
then very meager, and the entire faculty consisted of the 
president, one professor, and two tutors. Bryant's room- 
mate, wishing to avail himself of better advantages than 
were offered at Williams College, resolved to leave and 
enter Yale. Dr. Bryant consented that his son should 
take the same step ; so, having received an honorable 
dismission from Williams College, the young Sopho- 
more returned home to prepare for entering the Junior 
class at Yale. This plan was not carried out, as Dr. 
Bryant felt that he could not afford the greater expense 



382 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

involved. Thus it happened that Bryant's college life 
lasted but seven months, although he afterwards re- 
ceived the honor of having his name enrolled among the 
alumni of Williams College. 

Early Literary Career. — His first attempts at writing 
verse were made when he was but eight years old. Two 
years later, he composed a poem describing the school 
which he then attended, and recited it at the school 
exhibition. It was printed in the county newspaper, 
"The Hampshire Gazette." Before he was thirteen 
years old he wrote a poem about the solar eclipse of 
June, 1806, and paraphrases of the first chapter of Job 
and of one of the Psalms. In 1808, just before his four- 
teenth birthday, a political poem which he had written 
was published at Boston in a pamphlet entitled " The 
Embargo ; or, Sketches of the Times, A Satire : by a 
Youth of Thirteen." A second edition was published 
the next year, the book containing additional poems. 
" Thanatopsis " was written before its author was nine- 
teen years old. It was revised and extended before its 
publication in 1816. It has been called " the greatest 
poem ever written by so young a man." 

Professional Studies. — It was originally intended 
that Bryant should study medicine, as his father, grand- 
father, and great-grandfather had done before him ; but 
it was finally decided that he should devote himself to 
the law. He studied with Judge Howe of Worthington, 
and later with another lawyer at Bridgewater. At 
the age of twenty-one he was admitted to the bar. He 
opened an office in Plainfield, where he remained for 
eight months ; then went into partnership with another 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 383 

young lawyer in Great Barrington. In 1824, he aban- 
doned the law and devoted all his time to literary work. 
Soon afterwards, he removed his family to New York. 

Editorial Duties. — Bryant's work as an editor began 
in 1826, when he joined several friends in publishing a 
magazine called " The New York Review," but which 
was afterwards known as " The United States Review." 
In 1828, he became editor of the "New York Evening 
Post," a position which he held for nearly fifty years, 
and in connection with which most of his literary work 
was done. 

Lectures. — In 1825, he delivered a series of lectures 
on " Poetry " before the Athenaeum Society. For five 
successive years, beginning in 1827, he gave a course of 
lectures on " Mythology," before the Academy of De- 
sign. In later years, he was frequently called upon to 
deliver orations upon occasions of public interest. One 
of the most famous of these addresses was a memorial 
of Washington Irving, delivered in 1860, before the 
New York Historical Society. 

Family. — In 1821, Bryant was married to Miss 
Frances Fairchild of Great Barrington. They had two 
daughters. Mrs. Bryant died in 1866. Among the 
poems which contain references to her are the follow- 
ing:— 

Oh Fairest of the Rural Maids. 

The Future Life. 

The Life That Is. 

The Twenty-seventh of March. 

The Cloud on the Way. 

The Sick-Bed. 

October. 1866. 



384 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

Homes. — In 1843, he bought an estate at Roslyn, 
Long Island, where he spent most of the summers of 
his remaining years. The place was called "Cedar- 
mere." In 1865, he purchased the old homestead at 
Cummington, rebuilt the house, preserving its original 
features as far as was possible, and built near it a cot- 
tage for his married daughter, who had also a home at 
Roslyn adjoining his own. It was his custom to spend 
the late summer and early autumn at Cummington. 
During the winters, he resided in New York. 

Travels. — Besides two journeys through the South, 
two voyages to Cuba, and a tour through Mexico, Bry- 
ant made six voyages to Europe. Letters written dur- 
ing his travels were published in the "New York Even- 
ing Post" and afterwards collected in book form. His 
first visit to Europe was made with his family in 1834. 
Being obliged to return earlier than he anticipated, he 
left his family at Heidelberg, where they met Longfellow. 
The second and third visits, made in 1845 and 1849 respec- 
tively, were pleasure tours with a friend. In the second, 
he visited Wordsworth. In 1852, he visited Egypt and 
Syria. His fifth voyage, in 1857, was made mainly on 
account of the health of Mrs. Bryant, who, with her 
younger daughter, accompanied him. In Rome, he met 
Nathaniel Hawthorne. After the death of Mrs. Bry- 
ant, in 1866, he again went abroad with his daughter, 
visiting Spain, Italy, Germany, Wales, and England. 

Birthday Celebrations. — The seventieth birthday 
of Bryant was celebrated by the Century Club in New 
York. Oliver Wendell Holmes read a poem, and 
Whittier, who could not be present, sent the lines en- 




c^jm^^^iumy(^Y^^ 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 385 

titled "Bryant on His Birthday." For his eightieth 
birthday, his friends subscribed for a silver vase which 
was presented to him with a written address signed by 
thousands of names. 

Death. — On the afternoon of May 29, 1878, Bryant 
delivered his last address, at the unveiling of the statue 
to Mazzini, in Central Park. As he stood with un- 
covered head, the heat so overcame him that shortly 
after, as he was about to enter a friend's house, he fell 
backward, striking his head upon the stone steps. He 
was taken to his home, where, after two weeks of semi- 
unconsciousness, he died, at the age of eighty-four. 

Funeral. — Among those present at the funeral were 
Longfellow and Holmes. At the cemetery in Roslyn, 
selections from Bryant's poems were read by his brother 
John. The poet was laid to rest by the side of his wife, 
and his grave was filled with flowers by the children of 
the schools. 

BRYANT'S WORKS. 

Prose. 

1852. Letters of a Traveller. Originally published in the " New 

York Evening Post." 
1869. Letters from the East. 
1873. Orations and Addresses. 

Poetry. 

1808. The Embargo. 

1821. Poems. Including " Thanatopsis," "The Ages," "To a 
Waterfowl," " Inscription for the Entrance to a Wood," 
" The Yellow Violet," and three others. 

1831. Poems. Including "A Forest Hymn," "The Death of the 
Flowers," " The African Chief," and " To the Fringed 
Gentian." This collection was published in England, 
with an Introduction by Washington Irving. 



386 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

1842. The Fountain, and Other Poems. 

1844. The White-Footed Deer, and Other Poems. 

1864. Thirty Poems. Including "Sella " and " The Little People 

of the Snow," etc. 
1876. Complete Illustrated Edition of Poems. 

The " Ode to Washington " was his last poem. 

Works Edited by Bryant. 

1832. Tales of the Glauber Spa. 2 vols. 
1870. Library of Poetry and Song. 

Picturesque America. 2 vols. 

School History of the United States. 4 vols. 

Edition of Shakespeare. (Not yet published.) 

Translations. 

1870. The Iliad. 

1871. The Odyssey. 

REFERENCES. 

Life of Bryant, by Parke Godwin. 

Preface to Complete Edition of Bryant's Poems. 

Preface to Memorial Edition of Library of Poetry and Song. 

'The Bryant Homestead Book. 

Life of Bryant, by David J. Hill. 

Sketch and Study of Bryant's Works, by Symington. 

Home Life of Great Authors, by H. T. Griswold. 

Homes of American Authors, by Mrs. Kirkland. 

Memorial Pamphlet published by the New York Evening Post 

Poets' Homes, by K. H. Stoddard. 

Poets of America, by E. C. Stedman. 

Outlines for a Study of Holmes, Bryant, and Whittier. [Leaflet.] 

The Boys of My Boyhood, by William Cullen Bryant. 

St. Nicholas, Dec, 1876. 
William Cullen Bryant, 1 by George Ripley. 

Harper's, April, 1851. Vol. II. p. 581. 

1 Illustrated. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 387 

William Cullen Bryant, 1 by Horatio N. Powers. 

Century, Aug., 1878. Vol. XVI. p. 479. 
William Cullen Bryant, by James Wynne. 

Harper's, March, 1862. ■ Vol. XXIV. p. 509. 
The Bryant Vase, 1 by Samuel Osgood. 

Harper's, July, 1876. Vol. LIII. p. 245. 
Bryant, by G. S. Hillard. Atlantic, Feb., 1864. Vol. XIII. p. 233. 

For critical references, see Welsh's English Masterpiece Course, 
p. 164. 

QUESTIONS FOE KEVIEW. 

1 . When and where was Bryant born ? 

2. Who was his father? 

3. How many brothers and sisters had he? 

4. What can }ou say of his boyhood? 

5. Of his early literary tastes? 

6. Where did he attend school? 

7. When and where did he prepare for college? 

8. What can you say of him as a scholar? 

9. When and where did he enter college? 

10. How long did he remain? In what class? 

11. Why did he not complete the course? 

12. At what age did he begin to make verses? 

13. What can you say of his early poems? 

14. How old was he when he wrote " Thanatopsis "? 

15. For what profession was Bryant educated ? 

16. With whom did he study? 

17. Where and how long did he practice? 

18. What magazine did he edit? 

19. What can you say of his connection with the " New York 

Evening Post"? 

20. What lectures did he deliver? 

21. What can you say of his public addresses? 

22. When and whom did he marry? 

1 Illustrated. 



388 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

23. Mention some of his poems which refer to his wife. 

24. How man}' children had he? 

25. When did he make his first voyage to Europe? 

26. Who accompanied him? 

27. What American author did he meet in Germany? 

28. How long was this after he became editor of the " Post" ? 

29. Where and what was " Cedarmere"? 

30. How many voyages to Europe did Bryant make? 

31. What can you say of other journeys? 

32. What books contain records of his travels? 

33. When did he visit Egypt and S} T ria? 

34. When did he visit Wordsworth? Where? 

35. Who was Wordsworth? 

36. Mention any of Wordsworth's works. 

37. When and why did Bryant go abroad for the fifth time? 

38. Who accompanied him? 

39. Where did he meet Hawthorne? 

40. What book was the latter then writing? 

41. When did Bryant purchase the old homestead? 

42. How did he divide his time among his homes? 

43. When did Mrs. Bryant die? 

1 44. How soon afterward did he make his last visit to Europe ? 

45. What can you say of this journey? 

46. How old was he then? 

47. Give an account of two birthday celebrations. 

48. When did he last appear in public? 

49. What was the cause of his death? 

50. When and where did he die? 

51. How old was he? 

52. What do you know about the funeral? 

53. Where is his grave? 

54. What is his best-known work? 

55. What can you say of him as a man? 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 389 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

1. Arrange the names of the authors in chronological order. 

2. Give the date of birth of each. 

3. Which of them were born in Massachusetts? 

4. In what states were the others born? 

5. Which two were descended from John and Priscilla 

Alden ? 

6. Which studied law? 

7. How many of these really engaged in practice? 

8. Which have been teachers? Where? 

9. Which have edited newspapers? What? 

10. Which have edited magazines? What? 

11. What were the occupations of their fathers? 

12. Which of them gave in boyhood promise of future emi- 

nence? 

13. Which were college graduates? From what college? 

In what class ? 

14. How many visits to Europe has each made? 

15. Which were class poets? 

16. What other would have received the honor but for his 

high rank? 

17. Which remained unmarried? 

18. Name the wives of the others. 

19. How many children had each? 

20. AVhich of these authors are dead? When did they die? 

21. Where are they buried? 

22. Which have been foreign ministers? 

23. When, where, and under what circumstances did Irving 

and Longfellow meet in Europe ? 

24. Where did Longfellow meet Bryant while abroad? 

25. Which two of the authors met in Eome in 1857? 

26. Which two were abroad together in 1886? 

27. What association between Hawthorne and Longfellow? 



390 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH. 

28. Between Lowell and Longfellow? 

29. Which .three lived in Cambridge, near Harvard College? 

30. What and where were " Cedarmere," u The Wayside, " 

"Oak Knoll," " Sunnyside," "Elmwood," u The 
Craigie House," " The Hastings House," " The Old 
Manse," " The Bryant Homestead," " The Red 
Shanty"? 

31 . Did General Washington ever meet his namesake, Wash- 

ington Irving ? 

32. What other association between the two? 

33. What association between Washington and Longfellow? 

34. Between Washington and Lowell? 

35. Who suggested the writing of u Evangeline"? 

36. Of " Bracebridge Hall" ? 

37. What does ' ' Outre-Mer " mean ? 

38. What is the meaning of " Salmagundi"? 

39. How did Irving advertise his u History of New York "? 

40. What books did Hawthorne write for children ? 

41. Why did Longfellow write u Hyperion"? 

42. What works did Hawthorne and Longfellow publish in 

the year before the death of Irving? 

43. What serials did Holmes contribute to " The Atlantic 

Monthly " ? 

44. What volumes were published by Longfellow and Whit- 

tier in 1866? 

45. What poem of Whittier's refers to an incident of the 

" dark day" of 1780? 

46. What poem of Lowell's refers to an incident of the bat- 

tle of Concord? 

47. What famous birthday celebrations can you mention? 

48. What has been written about each of these authors by 

any of the others? 

49. Which are your favorites among the authors? Why? 

50. Name the author of each of the following : — 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 



391 



Letters of a Traveller. 

Tales of a Traveller. 

The House of the Seven Gables. 

Voices of the Mght. 

Under the Willows. 

The Scarlet Letter. 

The Little People of the Snow. 

Elsie Venner. 

Mabel Martin. 

The Guardian Angel. 

A Forest Hymn. 

Dr. Grimshawe's Secret. 

Conversations on the Poets. 

The King's Missive. 

The Death of the Flowers. 



The Tent on the Beach. 

Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

Life of Oliver Goldsmith. 

Voices of Freedom. 

Songs in Many Keys. 

Fireside Travels. 

The Alhambra. 

Twice-Told Tales. 

A Fable for Critics. 

The Golden Legend. 

Legends of New England. 

The Hanging of the Crane. 

Thanatopsis. 

Birds of Passage. 

Grandfather's Chair. 



392 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 



PROGRAMME 



CELEBRATION OF LONGFELLOW'S BIRTHDAY. 



Hillhouse High. School, Feb. 27, 1885. 

The following programme for the celebration of 
Longfellow's Birthday will suggest how these biograph- 
ical sketches may be made available in commemorating 
the birthdays of other authors. If circumstances per- 
mit, singing may be introduced, the selections being 
some of the poems which have been set to music. 

1. Longfellow's Boyhood. 

The recitation closes with a reference to Longfellow's state- 
ment that he often stopped to watch the old potter at his 
work, going back and forth under the branches of a great 
tree. 

2. Selection from " Keramos." 

First three stanzas ; then the next two stanzas which are 
printed in Italics. 

3. His First Poem. 

The story is told by J. T. Trowbridge in " The Youth's 
Companion." Recitation closes with a reference to the 
poem " My Lost Youth/' as containing memories of his boy- 
hood days in Portland, his early aspirations, etc. 

4. Selections from " My Lost Youth." 

Omit stanzas 2, 5, 8, and 9. 



Longfellow's birthday. 393 

5. College Life. 

Recitation closes with the titles of some of the poems writ- 
ten before he was nineteen years old. 

6. " Sunrise on the Hills." 

7. Longfellow as a Professor. 

includes anecdotes. 

8. Marriage. 

Recitation closes with reference to the death of Mrs. Long- 
fellow. 

9. " Footsteps of Angels." 

10. His Home. 

11. Selection from " The Golden Milestone." 

Last four stanzas. 

12. His Second Marriage. 

References to "Hyperion." Closes with mention of Mrs. 
Longfellow's death. 

13. " The Light of Stars." 

14. His Children. 

15. " The Children's Hour." 

16. Selection from " The Village Blacksmith." 

Omit stanzas 2, 5, and 6. The recitation is prefaced by a 
short explanatory note. 

17. The Children's Arm-Chair. 

History and description. 

18. " From My Arm-Chair." 

19. Longfellow's Study. 

The recitation closes with a reference to various relics and 
treasures, among them the iron pen. 

20. " The Iron Pen." 

21. " The Old Clock on the Stairs." 

Omit stanzas 3, 4, and 6. Recitation prefaced by brief 
explanatory note. 



394 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

22. Longfellow's Friends. 

Mention of poems referring to them, 

23. " Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz." 

24. Origin of " Evangeline." 

25. Selection from " Evangeline." 

Beginning with 

" Then came the laborers home from the fields " — 
extending to 

« Firmly builded with rafters of oak." 

26. Selection from " Courtship of Miles Standish." 
Abridgment of the interview between John Alden and Priscilla. 

" So through the Plymouth woods " — (1 line.) 

" Heard, as he drew near the door " — (8 lines.) 

" So he entered the house " — (5 lines.) 

" Then they sat down " — (5 lines.) 

" You will say it is wrong " — (18 lines.) 

" Had he but waited " — (8 lines.) 

" But as he warmed " — (4 lines.) 
The recitation is prefaced by a reference to Longfellow's 
descent from John Alden. 

27. Longfellow's Old Age, with explanation of " Morituri Saluta- 

mus," and short selections from the poem. 

The four opening lines ; then the lines beginning, 

" O ye familiar scenes." 
The reference to Professor Packard, beginning, 

" They all are gone " ; 
the closing lines : — 

" Something remains for us to do or dare ; 
Even the oldest tree some fruit may bear. 
******* 
For age is opportunity," etc. 

These quotations may be connected by a few words of 
explanation. 



Longfellow's birthday. 395 

28. "Aftermath." 

Prefaced by a few words concerning Longfellow's last 
literary labors. 

29. Whittier's poem, " The Poet and the Children." 

Prefaced by a few words relating to the celebration of Long- 
fellow's seventy-fifth birthday. 

30. Death of Longfellow. 

Closing with a reference to the influence of his writings. 
This reference introduces a selection from the poem, " Charles 
Sumner." Last five stanzas. 

31. The Funeral Services. 

Closing with mention of the poem recited during the ser- 
vices, " Suspiria." 

Reference may also be made to the fact that the snow 
began to fall while the services were in progress — thus 
introducing the poem "Snowflakes." 

32. The Memorial Service. 

Selection from " Hiawatha," XV., beginning 

" He is dead, the sweet musician " — 
to 

" Then the medicine man." 

33. Selection from Governor Long's Tribute to Longfellow — 

beginning " Longfellow was never more present with you 
than here and now," and ending with " Excelsior ! " 

A few intermediate sentences may be omitted. 

For this extract, see Kennedy's Life of Longfellow, p. 139. 

31. Presentation to the School of a portrait of Longfellow. 



INDEX. 



Abstract, 283 ; defined, 289 ; advan- 
tages of, 290; rules for, 290, 291. 

Adjectives, implying number, 136 ; 
comparison of, 136 ; faulty com- 
parisons, 137, 138; used for ad- 
verbs, 138. 

at nire, 161. 

A verbs, used for adjectives, 138 ; 
position in sentence, 186. 

Affix, 41. 

Agricola, 13. 

aint, 131. 

Alfred tbe Great, 20, 28. 

Allegory, how differing from simile 
and metaphor, 69 ; examples of, 
72. 

Alliteration, 87. 

Allusion, 87. 

almost, 146. 

among, 149. 

Amplification, 283, 300 ; advantages 
of, 300 ; rules for, 301. 

" and which" 195. 

Angles, 14 ; Angles and Saxons 
hired by Vortigern, 15 ; three 
kingdoms, 20. 

Anglicized words, 29. 

Anglo-Saxon conquest, 16 ; effect 
upon the language, 16; specimens 
of the language, 18. 

Anglo-Saxon element, importance 
of, 41 ; prefixes, 43 ; suffixes, 44. 

another, 124. 

Anti -climax, 82. 

Antithesis, how made forcible, 74. 

anybody, 126. 



Apostrophe, figure of, 78; with per- 
sonal pronouns, 124; uses of mark, 
250. 

Article, general rule, 133; between 
possessive case and word which it 
governs, 134; before expressions 
in same construction, 134; before 
words in general sense, 135 ; before 
present participle, 135; referring 
to class as a whole, 135; before 
adjectives qualifying the same 
noun, 136. 

Aryan family, 5. 

as and like, 147. 

aught, ought, and naught, 145. 

Augustine, 18. 

Autobiography, 297. 

Balanced sentence, 180. 

Barbarism, 150; classes of, 158. 

Bede, 18. 

beside and besides, 148. 

between, 149. 

Bible, old translations of, 7; purity 
of English in, 42. 

Biography, 295 ; outline for, 295 ; in- 
troduction to, 296; conclusion of 
297. 

Brackets, rule for, 249. 

brave, 162. 

bring, 161. 

Britannia, 11. 

Britons, 11. 

Brittany, 16, 17. 

Bryant, William Cullen — birth, 
home circle, boyhood, 380; school 



398 



INDEX. 



life, college life, 381 ; early literary- 
career, professional studies, 382 ; 
editorial duties, lectures, family, 
383 ; homes, travels, birthday 
celebrations, 384; death, funeral, 
works, 385; references, 386; ques- 
tions, 387, 388. 
Buddhists, 6. 

Cadence, 207. 

Caesar, Julius, expedition to Britain, 
11. 

can and may, 142. 

Canute, 21. 

Capitals, rules for, 251-253. 

Caret, 250. 

Carnac, 12. 

carriage, 163. 

Celtic branch, 7; language, exter- 
mination of, 17. 

Celts, 11. 

censure, 163. 

Circumlocution, 200. 

Changes in meanings of words, 161. 

Charlemagne, 22. 

Chester, origin of name, 13. 

Classical element, 41. 

Clearness, 186. 

.Climax, as a figure, 82; an element 
of strength, 202. 

Colloquialisms, 47. 

Colon, rules for, 236, 237. 

Comma, rules for, 224-230. 

Complex sentence, 179. 

Composition, general directions for, 
280-282; two things considered, 
283; from pictures, 306; upon ob- 
jects, 317; collection of material 
for, 317; selection and arrange- 
ment of material, 320; choice of 
subjects, 332-334. 

Compound words, 40; sentences, 
179. 

Conclusion of a sentence, 202; of a 



composition, 292; of a biography, 

297. 
Connection, words of, 200. 
Contrasts, 201. 
Cuneiform inscriptions, 6. 
Cymric tongues, 7. 

damsel, 162. 

Danish invasion, 21; effect upon 
language, 21. 

Dash, rules for, 243-245. 

Days of the week, origin of names. 
19. 

demerit, 163. 

depart, 163. 

Description, 325; of objects, 326; of 
scenery, 328, 329; of persons, 330, 
331 ; combined with narrative, 331 

Diction, 157; purity of, 159; pro- 
priety of, 161; precision of, 167. 

Domesday book, 24. 

Domesticated words, 157. 

don't, 130. 

Double negatives, 139. 

Druids, 12. 

each, 119, 126. 

each other and one another, 146. 

Edward the Confessor, 23. 

either, 119; either — or, 139. 

Emphasis, 191. 

Energy, 199. 

England, origin of name, 16 ; Chris- 
tianity in, 19. 

English language, our mother- 
tongue, 6; place of in Aryan 
family, 7; words derived from 
Roman names, 14; of Latin ori- 
gin, 14; different names of the 
language, 17; words introduced 
by missionaries, 20; effect of Da- 
nish invasion upon the language. 
21; words introduced by the 
Danes, 22; effect of Norman Con- 



INDEX. 



399 



quest upon the language, 25, 26; 
growth of the language, 27; influ- 
ence of commerce, 28; influence 
of education, 28, 29; influence of 
science, 30; influence of inven- 
tion and discovery, 30; influence 
of new ideas, 31 ; number of words 
in the language, 31; elements of 
the language, 31; summary of 
facts concerning the elements of 
English, 32, 33; two main ele- 
ments, 41; numerical ratio of 
Saxon and Classical words, 41; 
Saxon element, 42-50; Classical 
element, 51-65; words derived 
from Latin roots, 59; words de- 
rived from Greek roots, 61; good 
English, 118. 

Epigram, 75. 

Etymology, the study of, 40; an un- 
safe guide, 163o 

Euphemism, 85. 

Euphony, 205. 

every, 119, 126. 

everybody, 126. 

11 E very-day words," 26. 

except for without or unless, 147. 

Exclamation, figure of, 79; rules for 
exclamation point, 241, 242. 

False syntax, 118. 

Fiction, 323, 324. 

Figures, defined, 66; additional, 85- 
88; faulty, 88-95; use of, 88; 
abuse of, 88; hackneyed, 89; 
founded on too close resemblance, 
89 ; founded on too remote resem- 
blance, 90; inappropriate, 90. 

flee, fly, smdfloiv, 144. 

France, origin of name, 15. 

Franks, 14. 

Gaelic tongues, 7. 
German, 7, 14. 



Germans, fondness for native names, 

30. 
Godwin, Earl, 23. 
good and well, 150. 
Gothic language, 7. 
Goths, 14, 15. 
gossip, 162. 
Greek branch, 7. 
Greek words, character of, 30 ; words 

of number, 60; prefixes, 60. 

Harmony, 205. 

Harold, 23. 

Hastings, battle of, 23. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel — birth, home 
circle, early life, 360; college life, 
early literary career, Boston cus- 
tom house, 361 ; Brook Farm, fam- 
ily, Salem custom house, homes, 
362; consulship, European travels, 
return to America, death, funeral, 
363; works, 364; references, 364; 
questions, 365-367. 

Hebrew, not the original language, 
4 ; why interesting, 8. 

Hengist and Horsa, 16. 

Hints about letter-writing, 273- 
275. 

Historical narratives, 322 ; romance, 
322. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell — birth, 
home circle, early home, school 
life, 368; college life, professional 
studies, professorships, medical 
practice, 369; family, literary 
career, visit to England, 370; 
works, 370, 371: references, 371: 
questions, 372, 373. 

Hybrids, 158. 

Hyperbole, 81. 

Hyphen, use of, 250. 

idiot, 162. 
imp, 162. 



400 



INDEX. 



impertinent, 163. 

Impropriety, 161. 

improve, 162. 

India, modern dialects of, 6. 

Indian branch, 6. 

Indians, extermination of, 16; In- 
dian words left in language, 17. 

Indo-European family, 5; theories 
concerning their home, 10. 

Infinitive, present and perfect, 130. 

Inflection, 9. 

Interrogation, figure of, 80; peculi- 
arities of, 80; interrogation point, 
rules for, 240. 

Introduction to a composition, 292; 
to a biography, 295, 296. 

Invention, 307. 

Irony, 84. 

Irving, Washington — birth, home 
circle, boyhood, 335; school life, 
law studies, 336; travels, 337; 
partnership in business, public 
offices, home, 338; literary career, 
339; death, works, 340; refer- 
ences, 341; questions, 342, 343. 

Italic branch, 7. 

its, 27. 

'Japhetic family, 5; theories con- 
cerning their home, 10. 
Jutes, 15, 20. 

Kelts [see Celts], 11. 

Language, definition and derivation 
of word, 1; the study of, 1; theo- 
ries concerning origin of, 2 ; earli- 
est forms of, 3; the original lan- 
guage, 3, 4; families of, 5; dead 
languages, 27. 

Latin, two classes of words derived 
from, 29; prefixes, 51-53 ; suffixes, 
54-56; words of number, 58; words 
derived from Latin roots, 59. 



Letter, parts of, 258-269; essential 
qualities of, 269-273. 

Letter-writing, importance of, 257; 
hints concerning, 273-275. 

lie and lay, 143. 

like and as, 147. 

Linguistics, 1. 

Litotes, 86. 

Local words, 158. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth — 
birth, home circle, early home, 
school life, college life, 344; pro- 
fessional studies, professorships, 
345; family, home, 346; literary 
career, third voyage to Europe, 
Morituri Salutamus, 347; the 
children's arm-chair, birthday 
celebration, death, 348; works, 
349; references, 350; questions, 
351, 352. 

Loose sentence, 180. 

Lord's Prayer, early versions of, 18. 

Lowell, James Kussell — birth, home 
circle, home, school life, college 
life, 374; law studies, literary ca- 
reer, editorial work, lectures, 375; 
professorships, family, public of- 
fices, 376; works, 376, 377; refer- 
ences, 377; questions, 378, 379. 

many a, 119. 

may and can, 142. 

Metaphor, how differing from simile, 
68; strained, 92; based upon un- 
familiar objects, 92; mixed, 93. 

Metonymy, how differing from met- 
aphor, 76; kinds of, 76. 

miser, 163. 

Modifiers, position of, 187. 

most for almost, 146. 

Narrative, special forms of, 321-323; 

combined with description, 331. 
naught, aught, and ought, 145. 



INDEX. 



401 



Negatives, double, 139. 

neither, 119; neither— nor, 139. 

nepheio, 162. 

New Forest, 24. 

New words, 158. 

no, 119. 

nobody, 126. 

Nominative case, 119; of pronouns, 
121. 

Norman-French, 25. 

Normandy, 22. 

Normans, compared with the Eng- 
lish, 22, 24; in England, 24; rela- 
tions between Normans and Sax- 
ons, 24, 25; effect of Conquest 
upon the language, 25, 26. 

Northmen or Norsemen, 22. 

Notes, 267, 268. 

Number, mistakes in, 120. 

Objective case, 128. 

Obsolete words, 158. 

one, 124. 

Onomatopoeia, 3, 86, 207. 

onto, on to, and upon, 149. 

other, 124. 

ought, 133, 145. 

Outline, how differing from ab- 
stract, 289, 290; suggestions for, 
291, 292, 293, 318. 

painful, 162. 

Pali, 6. 

Parallel, 86. 

Paraphrase, 283; rules for, 284, 285; 
advantages of, 286. 

Parenthesis, 196; rules for marks, 
248, 249. 

Participial construction, 187. 

Participle and past tense, 131. 

Particular terms, use of in descrip- 
tion, 326, 327. 

Period, rules for, 238, 239. 

Periodic sentence, 179. 



Persian branch, 6. 

Personal narratives, 321. 

Personification, three kinds of, 72, 
73; peculiar form of, 73. 

Picts and Scots, 15. 

Pleonasm, 88. 

Possessive case, before a participle, 
121; how formed, 122; special 
uses, 123; of pronouns, 124. 

Prakrit, 6. 

Precision of diction, 157, 167, 168. 

Prefix, 40. 

prevent, 163. 

Principal predicate, 192. 

Pronoun, nominative case of rela- 
tives, 121; case after verb to be, 
124 ; before participial noun, 125 ; 
agreement with antecedent, 125; 
number of relative pronouns, 126; 
use of in sentences, 187. 

Propriety of diction, 157; how at- 
tained, 161. 

Provincial words, 158. 

Punctuation marks, use and value 
of, 222; general rules for, 223; 
most common marks, 223. 

Puns, 75. 

pupil, 162. 

Purity of diction, 157, 159. 

Quotation marks, rules for, 246, 247. 

real and very, 150. 

reduce, 163. 

Redundancy, 200. 

Relative clauses, 194. 

Relative pronouns, agreement with 

antecedent, 125, 126; nominative 

case of, 127. 
Repetition, 206. 
Reproduction of thought, 283. 
Rhetoric, 157. 
Rhythm, 206. 
Rollo, 22. 



402 



INDEX. 



Romaic, 7. 

Romance languages, 7. 

Romans in Britain, 12, 13; with- 
drawal from the country, 13; ef- 
fect of their occupation upon the 
language of Britain, 13. 

Root of a word, 40. 

Sanskrit, 4, 5, 6. 

Saxons, 14; heptarchy, so called, 20; 
three Saxon kingdoms, 20. 

Saxon words, distinguished hy their 
form, 42-45 ; by use and meaning, 
45-47. 

Scandinavian tongues, 7; other 
names applied to the people, 21; 
their characteristics, 21. 

Sclavonic branch, 7. 

Semicolon, rules for, 232-234. 

Semitic family, 6; languages in- 
cluded, 6; why important, 8; pe- 
culiarities of inflection, 8, 9. 

Sentences, grammatical and rhetori- 
cal classification of, 179; effects of 
different kinds, 180; short and 
long, 183; rules for construction, 
186; synopsis of, 210. 

shall and will, 140, 141. 

-should and would, 141. 

Simile, 66, 67 ; simile and metaphor, 
mistakes in use of, 88-95. 

Singular subject, followed by ad- 
junct containing plural noun, 119. 

sit and set, 142. 

Slang, 159. 

Solecism, 118. 

some, something, and somewhat, 
148. 

somebody, 126. 

Sound adapted to sense, 207. 

spoke, 27. 

Squinting construction, 188. 

station, 161. 

Stonehenge, 12. 



Strabo, 11. 

street, 14. 

Strength, 199. 

Subject, principal, 191; change of, 

194. 
Subjunctive mood, 132. 
such and so, 144. 
Suffix, 40. 

Supplementary clauses, 196. 
Synecdoche, 77. 
Synonyms, 167, 285. 
Syro-Arabian family, 6 
Syntax, 118. 

Tacitus, 14. 

Tautology, 200. 

Technical terms, 158. 

Tense, mistakes in, 131. 

Teutonic branch, 7. 

Teutons, character of the people, 14; 

names of tribes, 14, 15. 
their, they're, and there, 145. 
to, too, and two, 146. 
to and into, 149. 

to, the sign of the infinitive, 129. 
too many ideas, 195. 

Unity, 194. 
unless, 147. 

unnecessary words, 199. 
urbane, 163. 

Vandals, 14. 
Vedas, 6. 

Venerable Bede, 18. 
very, 150. 
Vikings, 22. 
Vision, 85. 
vivacity, 162. 
Vortigern, 15. 

Wales, 16, 17. 
well and rjood, 150. 
Westminster Abbey, 23. 



INDEX. 



403 



West Saxons, prominence of their 
language, 17. 

what, 127. 

which, 127. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf — hirth, 
home circle, early home, school 
life, 353; early literary career, 
writings for periodicals, editorial 
duties, 354; anti-slavery work, 
homes, 355; works, 355, 356; refer- 
ences, 357 ; questions, 357, 358. 



who, 127. 
ivhom, 127. 

will and shall, 140, 141. 
William, Duke of Normandy, 23. 
without, 147. 
would and should, 141. 
wretch, 162. 

Wy cliff e, translation of the Lord's 
Prayer, 18. 

Zend-Avesta, 6. 



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" /y/ ffi/fl&z 




, 



